MA-Thesis at Landegg Academy/Switzerland
Table of Contents
- "The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" - Christian and Bahá'í doctrines of moral development
- "The Woman and the Child" - A comparison of archetypal key elements in early Christian and Bábí-Bahá'í History
- "Son of man and Son of God - Concepts of Christologies in the New Testament
- "The Son and the Father - A Bahá´í View
- view all chapters
[+CHAPTER1]
"The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak"
Christian and Bahá'í doctrines of moral development A Comparison
1. The Moral Domain
A theory of moral development tries to explain where moral values come
from, how they are being aquired, and how they can be best put into practice,
enabling human beings to become "moral beings", both individually and
socially.
R. Murray Thomas has provided a valuable framework for comparing and evaluating
different theories of moral development, both secular and religious, which will
be used here in part as the basic structure for the intended comparison.
[1]
The moral domain of each theory encompasses certain "objects" that need to be
identified. Typically, moral values focus on human relationships and determine
proper individual and social conduct. In the case of religious theories, the
relationship between humans and their Creator is an essential part of the moral
domain as well. Sometimes, the context is extended further and includes
guidelines to deal also with animals, plants, and the environment in
general.
In Christianity, the relationships to God and to one's fellow human beings are
being regarded as equally important and closely connected. When asked, which of
the laws was the most important, Jesus quoted Moses, "Thou shalt love the Lord
thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind".
[2] He than added, that there was a second law,
equally important, again referring to Mosaic law, "Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself".
[3]
On another occasion, Jesus had already greatly expanded the concept of the
"neighbour" to include one's enemies as well,
[4]
and so it could be postulated that a proper Christian ethical perspective would
be universal, inclusive and non-discriminatory.
Although Christ had emphatically raised the call for universal love, his
adherents have not yet been able (or willing) to overcome the barriers of
religious, racial, social, and gender prejudices.
[5]
Partly, this phenomenon could be explained with the dichotomous world-view,
characteristic for a world, traversing the childhood and youth stages of social
and spiritual evolution.
[6]
Characteristic of the collective age of immaturity is a polaric, dualistic
perspective. 'Abdu'l-Bahá explains how "in all religious teachings of
the past the human world has been represented as divided into two parts: one
known as the people of the Book of God, or the pure tree, and the other the
people of infidelity and error, or the evil tree".
[7] The challenge today consists in overcoming the pattern of
such a polaric and exclusive thinking, and to give way to an integral,
inclusive perspective.
Consequently, in the Bahá'í Writings we find the concept of
universal love more explicitly expressed: "You must manifest complete love and
affection toward all mankind. Do not exalt yourselves above others, but
consider all as your equals, recognizing them as the servants of one God. Know
that God is compassionate toward all; therefore, love all from the depths of
your hearts, prefer all religionists before yourselves, be filled with love for
every race, and be kind toward the people of all nationalities".
[8]
As in Christianity, this concept of universal love is based on and motivated by
the love of God. It is even asserted, that "love of God, and consequently of
men, is the essential foundation of every religion".
[9]
Focussing on our common origin, on God's love towards all His creatures, and on
His divine trust (spiritual qualities) placed in all of us, we can easier
overcome feelings of antipathy towards others, that naturally arouse on the
human level because of perceived differences and short-comings.
[10]
As part of an extended view of the moral domain, we will now briefly look at
the relationship towards animals and the environment in both belief-systems.
Animals have never played a great role in the moral domain of Christianity
(with the notable exception of Francis of Assisi). Following Roman Law, which
only distinguishes between persons and objects, animals have been regarded as
objects and treated according to their level of utility. Only recently it has
been acknowledged, that animals, at least high-developed mammals, are capable
of feeling emotions, such as pain, fear, and pleasure. Consequently, modern
interpretations of Christian ethics, regarding the treatment of animals, focus
more on the values of responsibility, caring, and the concept of being trustees
of God rather than rulers and exploiters.
[11]
Admonitions to treat animals responsibly and moderatly are scattered throughout
the Bible (especially the Torah), such as their right to rest on the Sabbath,
[12] not to inflict unnecessary pain on them,
[13] or provide relief when they are
over-burdened.
[14] The attempt to highlight
these admonitions, to give them "paradigmatic meaning",
[15] is praiseworthy. However, these arguments have not yet
played a major role in current ethical discussions about animal rights, animal
experiments (for the cosmetic industry), mass breeding of animals in
"factories", or genetic manipulation.
The situation is similar with regards to the environment - no explicit
guidelines for ecologically correct behaviour can be concretely deduced from
the Bible. Moral theologists today, in the light of so many symptoms of an
environmental crisis, call for an expanded concept of the "Golden Rule", to
include the non-human aspects of creation as well.
[16] God's instruction for humanity to "have dominion ... over
all the earth" and "subdue it"
[17] should be
likened to the attitude of a just king towards his subjects or a loving
shepherd towards his flock. Such an attitude would imply feelings of love,
compassion and caring, rather than greed, aloofness and exploitation.
[18]
Last but not least, the attempts to improve the ecological situation of our
planet can be based on Paul's assurance, that the whole of creation will be
saved and renewed in the times to come.
[19]
With regards to the eating of animals, theologians draw attention to the fact,
that originally human diet consisted of seed-containing plants, fruits and
nuts.
[20] In the times of Noah, it became
lawful to eat animals as well.
[21]
Certain food restrictions (consumption of meat of strangled or sacrificed
animals, or of meat still containing blood) were cancelled in the early
Christian community
[22] and Paul exhorted his
fellow believers to be tolerant towards each other: "For one believeth that he
may eat all things: another, who is weak, eateth herbs. Let not him that eateth
despise him that eateth not; and let not him which eateth not judge him that
eateth: for God hath received him".
[23] Some
Christians (and Jews) believe that in the peaceful future to come, the 'Golden
Age', no meat will be eaten anymore.
[24]
In the Bahá'í Faith, there are no restrictions concerning food.
'Abdu'l-Bahá points out, that human
teeth were not designed to eat meat (which provides an interesting parallel to
the original human
diet, according to the book of Genesis), and consequently, we could live
healthily on a vegetarian
based diet.
However, this matter is left to the conscience (and constitution) of the
individual.
[25] Nevertheless,
there are indications in the Bahá'í Writings, that the eating of
meat will decrease and eventually
stop.
[26] This trend will be based on the
findings of a science of nutrition, still in its early stage of
development, but also on an increasing sense of compassion.
[27]
To facilitate such a process of aquiring a more refined sense of compassion
towards animals,
'Abdu'l-Bahá recommends that children should be entrusted with pets, so
that they can learn to take
responsibility for them. The main underlying reason is precisely the
recognition of the fact that
animals share with humans the capacity for feelings. Unlike humans however,
they are unable to
verbalize their emotions and appeal for just treatment. Their fate is
determined by our good will and
they depend on our care and protection.
[28]
With regards to the environment, Bahá'u'lláh emphatically
reiterates the Biblical concept of nature,
being the "will" and "creation" of God.
[29]
Equally, God's command for humanity to "subdue the earth" has not been
abrogated,
[30] in spite of
having misused this trust so badly. But exploitation of the earth's resources
is not a recent
phenomenon, although its impact on a global basis is certainly more dramatic
than ever before.
Already in the Old Testament, we find the warning of the prophet Isaiah,
directed against the king
of Babylon, foretelling his fall, because he has ruined the land and enslaved
his people.
[31] But the
prophet does not only provide a vision of doom, he also offers one of hope. The
prospect for nature
is to recover
[32], the prospect for the people
is to be able to return to the City of God, to Zion.
[33]
Babylon and Zion are used throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bible (Revelation
of John) as
spiritual images, archetypal in nature - counterpoles of selfishness,
presumptiousness, and
exploitation vs. a life in harmony with spiritual principles.
[34]
The moral lesson, that we can learn, according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, is that
"allegiance to the essential
foundation of the divine religions is ever the cause of development and
progress, whereas the
abandonment and beclouding of that essential reality through blind imitations
and adherence to
dogmatic beliefs are the causes of a nation's debasement and degradation".
[35]
As this example shows, environmental issues are closely connected to man's
moral attitude, and this
legitimizes an extended view of the moral domain.
2. Sources of Evidence
The main source of evidence for the various Christian denominations is the
Bible, consisting of the "Old Testament"
[36],
and the "New Testament".
[37]
Less important, and only selectively used, are the writings of the "Church
Fathers" (early Christian scholars, most notably St. Augustine) and later
scholars (above all, Thomas Aquinas, with his monumental work "Summa
Theologica").
The Catholic Church also includes the Papal decrees (formulating binding
beliefs, the "dogmas") into the canon of "primary literature" and pays respect
to many other Papal writings (such as the Encyclicas, with non-binding
character, written for guidance, admonition, and edification).
There is at least one Christian sect, the Mormons, who regard another text (the
"Book of Mormon") as Holy Scripture besides the Bible.
In the Bahá'í Faith, the Writings of the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh are regarded as holy (divinely inspired), but the
canon of primary literature includes also the writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
and of Shoghi Effendi.
[38] The letters of the
Universal House of Justice provide a valuable source for moral guidance as
well, but fall into a different category.
[39]
"Investigative techniques" are used to approach and understand the various
"sources of evidence". Thomas basically distinguishes between "divine
inspiration" and a "scientific approach".
[40]
Whilst the latter is subject to falsification and verification, and to a
constant process of evaluation and refinement, proponents of the first take the
truth of "revelation" as granted and absolute.
The problem of course is, that divine "truth" still depends on human
interpretation, and how diverse such understanding can be, is amply
demonstrated by the belief-systems of the various Christian sects and
denominations.
In the Bahá'í Faith, the coherence of the community is
safeguarded by the "Covenant",
[41] but
certainly there is a variety of individual beliefs and preferences, that
ideally can all unfold under the umbrella of "Unity in Diversity".
The Bahá'í Faith also introduces the concept of `the relativity
of religious truth'. It explains that "Divine Revelation is a continuous and
progressive progress", the different religious teachings being "but facets of
one truth", with "complementary functions", differing only in the "nonessential
aspects of their doctrines" and that "their missions represent successive
stages in the spiritual evolution of human society".
[42]
Ignoring this scheme of inter-connectedness, clinging on to obsolete, divisive
orthodox doctrines, is one of the main causes for the state of confusion that
the world is in.
[43]
Within Christianity, there is a wide spectrum of opinions regarding the
authenticity of the Bible, and, consequently, the degree of divine inspiration.
Fundamentalist Christians take every word for true and literal, others take a
more liberal approach, allowing different (historic and symbolic)
interpretations. Many appreciate the wisdom and beauty of Christ's teachings,
but are uncertain about their status (whether they come from a divine source
and are infallible, or are mere expressions of human wisdom, with the risk of
containing possible errors).
[44]
Catholics have always relied on the sermons and interpretations by the priest.
Until the time of Reformation, no translation into a modern language was
available, and the majority of people did not speak Latin. Protestants used the
Bible (Luther's German translation) extensively in their criticism of the
corruptive state of the Catholic Church, and the counter-reaction was suspicion
of anyone reading the Bible privately. Consequently, independent Bible study
became somehow a Protestant domain (the first Catholic translation appeared
only hundred years after Luther's work), and was discouraged as late as in 1897
by Pope Leo XIII.
A change came with the Second Vatican Council (1965), which expressed the hope
that the Word of God will provide new motivation for the spiritual life. But
centuries of Church authorities' suspicion of the private use of the Bible
seems still to linger in the collective memory of the people. Bible reading
is a recent and still marginal phenomenon among Catholics.
[45]
In the Bahá'í Faith, great emphasis is placed on both
inspirational reading
[46] and a thorough study
of the Holy Writings. Studying the Writings in depth is encouraged from
different angles:
- It helps to develop an increasing understanding of mystical truths: "Immerse
yourselves in the ocean of My words, that ye may unravel its secrets, and
discover all the pearls of wisdom that lie hid in its depths".[47]
- It corresponds with the principle of "Independent Investigation of Truth": "I
urge them to study profoundly the revealed utterances of
Bahá'u'lláh and the discourses of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and not to
rely unduly on the representation and interpretation of the Teachings given by
Bahá'í speakers and teachers".[48]
- It facilitates the success in teaching: "To deepen in the Cause means to read
the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and the Master so thoroughly as to be
able to give it to others in its pure form".[49]
- It provides vision and a sense of purpose: " [T]he more you study the Cause
and its teachings the more you will realize what a mission it has to give to
this world at this time".[50]
- It helps to understand better the preceding religions: "The one who ponders
over that book [Iqan] and grasps its full significance will obtain a clear
insight into the old scriptures".[51]
- And, above all, it provides the impetus for moral behaviour: "To study the
principles, and to try to live according to them, are, therefore, the two
essential mediums through which you can ensure the development and progress of
your inner spiritual life and of your outer existence as well".[52]
- "It behoveth us one and all to recite day and night both the Persian and
Arabic Hidden Words, to pray fervently and supplicate tearfully that we may be
enabled to conduct ourselves in accordance with these divine counsels. These
holy Words have not been revealed to be heard but to be practiced."[53]
Personal interpretation is welcomed and encouraged. It is "considered the fruit
of man's rational power and conducive to a better understanding of the
teachings ...". One important condition qualifies this statement, which
continues: "...provided that no disputes or arguments arise among the friends
and the individual himself understands and makes it clear that his views are
merely his own".
[54]
The freedom of thought and expression should be balanced with humility and
tolerance, in order to avoid heated and unproductive arguments, or even worse,
"dissension and strife".
[55]
3. The Nature of Personality
An important issue to start with, is the question whether we are born
intrinsically good or evil.
The Catholic Church has developed the doctrine of the original sin. The fall of
Adam and Eve, their disobedience against God, has been inherited to the
generations that followed. Consequently, children are born sinful and salvation
can only be obtained through baptism and belief in Christ. Other Christian
denominations, which do not subscribe literally to this doctrine, would still
view human beings as naturally being inclined towards evil. Moral education
therefore aims at overcoming one's sinful nature, of battling against
temptations, with the help of promises of reward (Heaven), respectively threats
of punishment (Hell).
The Bahá'í Writings affirm that humans are being born noble
[56] and refute a literal interpretation of the
story of Adam and Eve, on which the doctrine of original sin is based, as
"unreasonable and evidently wrong"
[57]. A
symbolic interpretation instead is provided, explaining that it is not sin per
se, but "attachment of the soul and spirit to the human world", that is being
inherited, preventing humans from attaining "essential spirituality".
[58]
This earthly attachment it is, symbolized by the snake in the Bible, referred
to in the Bahá'í Writings as "ego", as "animal", "physical",
"material", "lower", "insistent" and "satanic" self/nature, metaphorically
equated with a "prison", a "tomb", a "sheath", a "veil", "fire" and "dust",
that we have to struggle against, and try to subdue, in order to manifest our
"true", "higher" or "spiritual" self/nature.
Tempting as it may be, to regard this concept of a higher and lower self as a
dualistic one, we are cautioned not to do so. The metaphoric distinction is one
of function or manifestation, not of identity.
[59]
Christian Theologians are divided over the question, whether heart, soul,
spirit, and mind are different components/aspects of our inner reality, or
merely synonyms, describing this inner reality from different perspectives. The
Bible does not provide much clarity on such psychological issues. Statements
like "thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy
soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength",
[60] or "I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body be
preserved blameless",
[61] seem to imply a
distinction. In other passages the terms "heart", "soul" and "spirit" seem to
be used interchangeably.
[62]
Difficulties of interpretation arise, because such statements were never
intended to provide an anthropological or psychological description, rather
they are religious sentiments, moral exhortations and spiritual images. Further
ambiguity derives from the problem of various translations.
[63]
In the Bahá'í Writings, numerous passages deal with the inner
human reality, and shed a lot more light on the subject. Besides references,
which list these faculties only in passing, like in the Bible,
[64] we find texts that go into great detail and provide the
reservoir for a Bahá'í inspired psychology to evolve.
[65]
Based on such passages, Jordan identifies the twin capacities of "loving and
knowing" as the ones, which "constitute the basic nature of human potential"
and sees in their development the goal of "becoming your true self".
[66] Consequently, he defines a spiritual
person as one "who knows and loves God, and who is committed to the struggle of
developing these knowing and loving capacities for service to humanity".
[67]
Implicit in this definition is the third main power of the human soul, the
faculty of free will, that expresses itself in commitment, struggling, and
service. It is this third element, that Danesh adds explicitly to a triade
model of "knowledge, love and will".
[68] He
develops this model further, by correlating these three main human powers with
three primary human concerns (Self, Relationships, and Time). Moreover, each
section contains three hierarchical levels of development, thus arriving at a
fairly complex model of the human soul, strongly being based on the
Bahá'í Writings.
For McLean, the Bahá'í Writings provide "a divine anthropology",
a necessary bridge between psychology and religion, by coinciding with many
insights of modern psychology, and by reviving, clarifying, and developing the
concepts of `spirit', `soul' and `God'.
[69]
One such `clarification', or `re-definition', concerns the concept of
personality.
[70] Usually, `individuality'
and `personality' are interchangable terms. The differences in personality, our
specific character traits, attitudes and behaviour patterns, are the expression
of our individuality.
'Abdu'l-Bahá however, distinguishes two kinds of personality: the
God-given attributes, an unchangeable set of qualities, in the state of
potentiality, as opposed to the actualization of this `spiritual heritage',
acquired in the course of our lives, which entail both vices and virtues.
[71]
This definition reconciles the apparent contradiction between the Biblical
concept of man, being created in the image of God, and the actual outcome,
often not resembling such a noble state.
It also emphasizes our responsibility (and of those who are in charge of our
education), to refine and develop those original virtues, "in the same way that
the beauty of the statue is a refinement of the original marble".
[72]
4. Moral versus Immoral
Each theory offers guidelines (moral values), which help us to decide whether a
thought or act is moral or immoral. Thomas proposes that moral values can be
represented as principles or conditions. Principles are "unqualified statements
of belief",
[73] which means that their
application to daily life is not modified by any personal or exterior factor,
such as quality of character, moral conscience, or social versus personal
determinism. Such factors (conditions) usually affect the application of moral
principles, and need to be identified, when assessing a theory's version of
moral development.
Thomas gives as examples of principles the Ten Commandments, but contradicts
himself, when he says, "rarely, if ever, does anyone apply a moral principle in
an identical manner in all situations".
[74]
Situations, that can even neutralize some of the Ten Commandments, are known as
`moral dilemmas', when two (or more) moral principles clash.
I would like to illustrate this point with a fictitious (but realistic)
example: A Christian was hiding a Jew during the time of Hitler's regime. When
asked, if he knew about this Jew's whereabouts, he denied, thereby saving this
person's life. Only by violating one of the Commandments (not to lie), he could
remain faithful to the higher maxime of preserving human life.
Moral dilemmas can only be solved, if we accept the notion of a hierarchy of
values (principles). The way out of the dilemma lies in breaking a (relatively)
less important principle, in order to remain loyal to a higher one.
[75]
To establish a hierarchy of values is necessary, but not sufficient. In the
example given above, the Christian may have hidden the Jew out of an ulterior
motive (greed, for example - the Jew promised him a large amount of money if he
survived). Clearly, the moral quality of such an act would have been much less,
even though the outcome (the person's survival) was the same. We can therefore
conclude, that one of the most important conditions is the moral intention, the
inner motivation, with which an action is carried out.
[76]
Obviously, we cannot look into another person's heart, to assess the moral
intention of their deeds. This is one of the reasons, why both Christ and
Bahá'u'lláh have emphatically discouraged us from judging
somebody else. We can only judge ourselves, and are exhorted to do so.
[77]
Another important differentiation that is often made, is to distinguish between
individual and collective ethics. Whether or not (respectively, in which cases)
such a distinction is justified, has often been a controversial issue in the
religious history of mankind. The most important example (with the most
dramatic consequences) is certainly the question, whether it is legitimate to
kill (not on an individual basis, as every religion forbids murder, but on a
collective basis, as in the case of war).
The early Christians took Christ's admonition, to refrain from violence, as
"unqualified statement of
belief".
[78] All the prominent Church
Fathers of the second and third century condemned any act of
violence and made no difference between individual crimes (murder) and
collective killing (war).
[79]
Soldiers, who converted to Christianity, were allowed to remain in the army,
but Christians, who wanted to become soldiers, were threatened with
excommunication.
[80]
All this changed, when Emperor Constantine started to favour Christianity.
Moral values, that have held the Christian community together for 300 years,
were turned upside down, when the Church gained power and aligned with
politics. The strict anti-militarism and pacifism of the early Church turned
into active participation in the expansion of the Roman (now Christian) Empire.
The Christian community was glad that the era of persecution was over, and that
they found themselves on the winning side.
[81]
Around 350, Church Teacher Basilius recommends that, at least, soldiers "with
their unclean hand should refrain from communion for three years", but his
contemporary, the patriarch Athanasius, already postulates, that "Murder is not
allowed. But in wars it is both legal and praiseworthy, to kill enemies".
Augustine formulates the theory of a "just war", in which case it is legitimate
to "take revenge for injustice". And it can be safely said that "just wars"
have been fought ever since.
Despite Christ's admonition, to leave the judgement of good and evil to God (on
the Day of Judgement)
[82], the Catholic
Church has massacred millions of "heretics", who posed a danger to the doctrine
and life-style of the "official" church.
[83]
It has been said, that "from Augustine goes a straight line to the Albigensian
Wars, the Inquisition, the condemnations of Huss and Servet, the martyrs of the
Reformation and of the religious wars".
[84]The list could be extended easily, but the point is
clear. Theologians throughout the centuries have tried very hard to justify
this dramatic paradigm shift from the original concept of pacifism to a
militant religionism.
[85] Most of the
arguments are weak and unconvincing, and some are even based on false
premises.
[86]
Other moral issues, that have experienced a radical re-definition over the
course of centuries, include the question of poverty vs. wealth,
[87] the status of women,
[88] and the issue of celibacy.
[89]
In the Bahá'í Faith, the concept of religiously motivated war
and, in a wider context, any activities aiming at discriminating the followers
of other religions have been categorically denounced.
[90]
However, the Bahá'í Faith does not advocate an absolute
pacifistic position. Bahá'ís are advised to serve in the civic
sector of society rather than do active army service, but not everywhere such
alternatives exist. In such a case, the principle of loyalty to the government
would overrule the concept of strict pacifism.
[91]
Even in a future era of global peace, when war will be internationally
outlawed, occasional outbursts of violence of one country against another
cannot be excluded. It is precisely for this reason, that
Bahá'u'lláh foresees the installation of an international army,
ready to rise unanimously against any aggressor, who threatens to destabilize a
peaceful and united world society.
[92]
5. Good and Bad Development
From an objective point of view, this distinction seems to be straightforward.
Good moral development refers to a person's character "changing in a way that
more closely approximates a particular theory's conception of desired
morality", whereas the opposite development "signifies thought and action that
depart from the path of desired morality".
[93] Thomas suggests, that "regression, retrogression,
deviance, backsliding, or deterioration" stand for bad moral development.
However, from a subjective perspective, the issue of moral development becomes
more complex.
Both religions provide the insight, that each person has been equipped with
different talents and capacities.
[94]
Any comparison becomes problematic, considering the fact, that people who seem
to be very highly morally advanced, may have been endowed with more "talents"
than others, their "receptacle" may be larger, but they have not (yet)
developed their potential to the extent possible. Whereas others may appear to
be less morally developed, but may already have tried much harder to fulfill
their potential.
The keyword is "striving" - Shoghi Effendi confirms, that "[t]he harder you
strive to attain your goal, the greater will be the confirmations of
Bahá'u'lláh, and the more certain you can feel to attain
success", whereas "a quick and rapidly-won success is not always the best and
the most lasting."
[95]
Both religions confirm the influence of "Satan", who hinders and sabotages the
continuous moral development of people. In Christianity, the "devil" is
personalized and regarded as external force, entering the souls of people and
tempting them. In the Bahá'í Faith, the allegoric nature of
"Satan" is explained, referring to the lower nature of man.
[96]
But even if we postulate, for argument's sake, the existence of an external
satanic force, such an
assumption would not justify the notion of being a helpless victim. Tempting as
it may be, to blame
"Satan" for one's shortcomings and failures to advance morally, we find no
evidence for such
conclusions in the Bible. What we do find, are exhortations to be vigilant and
prayerful, and other
guidelines to guard ourselves against and ward off any negative influence.
[97]
We also find the promise that we will never be tempted beyond our capacities,
in other words, we could always find ways and means to defeat such negative
forces.
[98]
Moral development can be seen as a constant struggle between the lower
("satanic") and the higher
("heavenly") aspects of Self. Occasional "backsliding" seems to be inevitable,
and I would hesitate
to label this already as "bad moral development".
[99]
If "backsliding" turns into a gradual process of "deterioration", if less and
less energy in "striving"
to overcome one's weaknesses is invested, or even if a prolonged phase of
stagnation in the process
of developping moral qualities can be witnessed, we may with more justification
speak of a phase
of "bad moral development".
[100]
The Catholic Church has, over the centuries, implanted a lot of guilt-feelings
into the hearts of her
adherents, when they failed to live up to the high ideals of their religion. In
my view, it is important
to accept the struggle of our dual nature, as outlined above, as a natural
consequence of our human
design. This is not to say to treat shortcomings lightly and not to try to
overcome them. This is to say that the nurturing of guilt-feelings impedes this
process of transformation, it has a discouraging effect, as we are inclined to
perceive of ourselves as 'bad', 'unworthy', and incapable of improvement.
It may be comforting to realize that we are not alone in this struggle for
becoming better human beings, and in the frustrating failure to translate our
belief into action. Even prominent figures, like the apostles Peter and Paul,
struggled and slipped occasionally, as the New Testament reveals.
[101]
The difficulty of this perennial struggle is also acknowledged in the
Bahá'í Writings. 'Abdu'l-Bahá provides an illuminating
analogy in comparing the process of spiritual transformation to the four lunar
phases:
Know thou, verily, the brilliant realities and sanctified spirits are likened
to a shining
crescent. It has one face turned toward the Sun of Truth, and another face
opposite to
the contingent world. The journey of this crescent in the heaven of the
universe ends
in (becoming) a full moon. That is, that face of it which is turned toward the
divine
world becomes also opposite to the contingent world, and by this, both its
merciful
and spiritual, as well as contingent, perfections become complete.[102]
McLean observes, how, during the first two stages, the "soul's earthward face,
however, is still in shadow, indicating the persistence of old habits and
darker mental predispositions". Only gradually,
not in clear-cut stages, the soul becomes more illumined "with the consistent
and patient practice of spiritual virtues expressed in a life of service", and
finally reflects fully "the light of the sun", a station that has been
reffered to as that of a "true believer".
[103]
This process is really the work of a lifetime, and even beyond, as the
Bahá'í Writings indicate:
Know thou of a truth that the soul, after its separation from the body, will
continue to progress until it attaineth the presence of God, in a state and
condition which neither the revolution of ages and centuries, nor the changes
and chances of this world, can alter. It will endure as long as the Kingdom
of God, His sovereignty, His dominion and power will endure. [104]
However, progress in the next world is not dependent on our volition anymore,
but rather on prayers and intercessions of other people, of good works
performed in our name, and, of course, on the bounty of God.
[105]
Even if the general Christian concept of the next world is more static,
intercession and prayers for the dead are still known and used. This practice
would be useless, if the souls would not profit by those means and develop
further, closer to God.
[106]
Conclusion
It has been the purpose of this paper to show how remarkably alike the concept
of moral development in both Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith
is. Even if in Christianity, due to the lack of a unifying source of
authoritative interpretation, a variety of theological opinions exist, a close
reading of the original sources reveal a fundamental spiritual compatibility
with the Bahá'í Writings. In all the areas discussed, the moral
domain, the nature of personality, the concept of morality and the development
of the soul, we find similar guidelines that can help believers to advance
spiritually and to work for the betterment of both their individual selves and
their environment. Concentrating on these similarities, rather than on
theological differences, would also be conducive to the process of interfaith
dialogue, and to the eventual development of a global ethical system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
'Abdu'l-Bahá.
Health and Healing. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer
System), Version 2.0. Crimson Publ., 1997.
Paris Talks. 12
th ed. London: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1995 [1912].
Promulgation of Universal Peace. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1982.
Secret of Divine Civilization. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer
System), Version 2.0. Crimson Publ., 1997.
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Haifa: World
Centre, 1978.
Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1981.
Will and Testament. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer System), Version
2.0. Crimson Publications, 1997.
Bahá'u'lláh,
Gleanings from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1983.
The Hidden Words.Oxford: Oneworld Publ., 1992.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas. The Most Holy Book. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1992.
The Kitab-i-Iqan. The Book of Certitude. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1974.
The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh: Revealed after the
Kitab-i-Aqdas. Haifa: World Centre, 1978.
Bell, Richard W., and Seow, Jimmy, eds.
The Environment. Our Common
Heritage. Mona Vale NSW (Australia): Association for Bahá'í
Studies, 1994.
Danesh, H.B.
The Psychology of Spirituality. Manotick, Ont.: Nine Pines
Publ., 1994.
Deepening. A Compilation on the Importance of Deepening our Understanding
and Knowledge of the Faith. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre,
1983.
Deschner, Karlheinz.
Abermals krähte der Hahn. Hamburg: Rowohlt,
1979 [1962].
Fischer, Udo.
Linker Jesus, Rechte Kirche. Wien-Klosterneuburg: Edition
Va Bene, 1994.
Franzen, August.
Kleine Kirchengeschichte. 5
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Ursprung und Gegenwart. München: Hugendubel, 1973.
Grundy, Julia M.
Ten Days in the Light of Akka. Wilmette, Ill.:
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Häring, Bernhard.
Frei in Christus: Moraltheologie für die Praxis
des christlichen Lebens. Vol.3. Freiburg/B.: Herder, 1989 [1981].
Jordan, Daniel C.
Becoming your true self. London: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1993.
Khoury, Theodor, and Hünemann, Peter, eds.
Wer ist mein Nächster?
Die Antwort der Weltreligionen. Freiburg/B.: Herder, 1988.
Lights of Guidance. Compiled by Helen Bassett Hornby. 4
th
rev. ed. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1996 [1983].
McLean, J.A.
Dimensions in Spirituality. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
Thomas, R. Murray,
Moral Development Theories - Secular and Religious. A
Comparative Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997.
Schilling, Otto.
Grundriss der Moraltheologie. 2
nd ed.
Freiburg/B.: Herder, 1949 [1948].
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The Advent of Divine Justice. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1990.
God Passes By. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
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Living the Life. Ipswich, Suffolk: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1984.
The Promised Day is Come. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1996.
Unfolding Destiny. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
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World Order of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Ill.:
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Stoeckle, Bernhard, ed.
Wörterbuch der ökologischen Ethik: Die
Verantwortung des Christen für den Bestand der Schöpfung.
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The Promise of World Peace. Oxford:
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Footnotes
[1] Thomas, Moral Development Theories -
Secular and Religious. A Comparative Study.
Thomas asserts that "a multifaceted, balanced understanding of any
moral-development theory is gained from learning the theory's answer to a
comprehensive set of questions" (p. 2) and he provides such a set, consisting
of twelve "Guide Questions" (The Moral Domain, Moral vs. Immoral, Good/Bad
Development, Sources of Evidence, Moral-Development Reality, Moral Human
Nature, Length of Development, Personality Structure, Directions, Processes,
and Stages, Causal Factors, Individual Differences, Nomenclature,
Popularity).
As a next step, he selected eight criteria, by
which each theory's adequacy can be evaluated, judging to what extent they are
understandable, explanatory, practical, verifiable, adaptable, fertile,
lasting, and self-satisfying.
For a detailed overview and
explanation of the `12 Guide Questions' and the `8 Evaluation Criteria', see
Thomas, Moral Development Theories, chapter 1.
[2] Deut. 6:5; Matt. 22:37.
[3] Lev. 19:18; Matt. 22:39.
[4] See Matt. 5:38-48.
[5]
It is remarkable, how often the Catholic Church found excuses to flagrantly
violate Christ's truly universal and inclusive message of love. Christian
groups with conflicting views were persecuted as "heretics", Jews were
discriminated and periodically persecuted, women were burnt as "witches",
scientists faced enmity and opposition, indigenous peoples were forcefully
converted, and "Holy Wars" were conducted against the "heathens" (i.e. Muslims,
with a more distinct monotheistic belief system than Christians themselves).
[6]
For the concept of social and spiritual evolution, see for example,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 439, or
Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, pp.165 and
202; see also the concept of evolving structures of consciousness in the
philosophy of Jean Gebser, Ursprung und Gegenwart (Origin and
Present).
[7] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, p. 454
[8]
Ibid., p. 453.
See also 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Will and Testament, p. 14: "Consort with all the peoples, kindreds and
religions of the world with the utmost truthfulness, uprightness, faithfulness,
kindliness, good-will and friendliness, that all the world of being may be
filled with the holy ecstasy of the grace of Baha, that ignorance, enmity, hate
and rancor may vanish from the world and the darkness of estrangement amidst
the peoples and kindreds of the world may give way to the Light of Unity".
[9] Shoghi Effendi,
Living the Life, p. 21.
[10] "Love the creatures for the sake of God and
not for themselves. You will never become angry or impatient if you love them
for the sake of God. Humanity is not perfect. There are imperfections in every
human being, and you will always become unhappy if you look toward the people
themselves. But if you look toward God, you will love them and be kind to them,
for the world of God is the world of perfection and complete mercy"
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p.
93).
[11] See Hilpert, Entry on `Tier' (Animal), in
Woerterbuch der oekologischen Ethik (Dictionary of Ecological Ethics),
pp. 122-27.
[12]
Ex. 20:10; 23:12.
[13] Deut. 25:4.
[14] Ex. 23:5.
[15] Hilpert, p. 124.
[16] Beutter, Entry on `Umwelt' (Environment),
in Woerterbuch der oekologischen Ethik, p. 137.
[17] Gen. 1:26-28.
[18]
See Brunner, Entry on `Schoepfung' (Creation), in Woerterbuch der
oekologischen Ethik, p. 115.
[19] "I consider that the sufferings of this
present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to
us.
For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of
the sons of God; for the creation was subjected to futility,
not of
its own will but by the will of him who subjected it in hope; because the
creation itself will be set free from its
bondage to decay and obtain
the glorious liberty of the children of God" (Romans 8:18-21).
[20]
Gen.1:29.
[21] Gen. 9:3.
[22] See Rom. 14:14.
[23] Rom. 14:2-3.
[24]
See Isaiah 11:6-9; 65:25.
[25]
"All the teeth of man are made for eating fruit, cereals, and vegetables...But
eating meat is not forbidden or unlawful, nay, the point is this, that it is
possible for man to live without eating meat and still be strong. Meat is
nourishing and containeth the elements of herbs, seeds, and fruits; therefore
sometimes it is essential for the sick and for the rehabilitation of health.
There is no objection in the Law of God to the eating of meat if it is
required" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Health and Healing, p.
463).
"In regard to the question as to whether people ought
to kill animals for food or not, there is no explicit statement in the
Bahá'í Sacred Scriptures (as far as I know) in favour or against
it. It is certain, however, that if man can live on a purely vegetarian diet
and thus avoid killing animals, it would be much preferable. This is, however,
a very controversial question and the Bahá'ís are free to express
their views on it" (Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Lights of Guidance, p.
297).
[26] "[M]an's food is
intended to be grain and not meat. When mankind is more fully developed, the
eating of meat will gradually cease" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, p.171).
"The time will come when meat
will no longer be eaten. Medical science is only in its infancy, yet it has
shown that our natural diet is that which grows out of the ground. The people
will gradually develop up to the condition of this natural food."
('Abdu'l-Bahá, quoted in Julia M. Grundy, Ten Days in the Light of
Akka, pp. 8-9).
[27] "Truly, the killing
of animals and the eating of their meat is somewhat contrary to pity and
compassion, and if one can content oneself with cereals, fruit, oil and nuts,
... it would undoubtedly be better and more pleasing" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
quoted in Lights of Guidance, p. 296).
[28] "Briefly, it is not only their fellow
human beings that the beloved of God must treat with mercy and compassion,
rather must they show forth the utmost loving-kindness to every living
creature. For in all physical respects, and where the animal spirit is
concerned, the selfsame feelings are shared by animal and man... And yet in
truth, what difference is there when it cometh to physical sensations? The
feelings are one and the same, whether ye inflict pain on man or on beast.
There is no difference here whatever. And indeed ye do worse to harm an
animal, for man hath a language, he can lodge a complaint...But the hapless
beast is mute....Therefore is it essential that ye show forth the utmost
consideration to the animal, and that ye be even kinder to him than to your
fellow man. Train your children from their earliest days to be infinitely
tender and loving to animals. If an animal be sick, let the children try to
heal it, if it be hungry, let them feed it, if thirsty, let them quench its
thirst, if weary, let them see that it rests" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, pp. 158-159).
[29] "Say: Nature in its
essence is the embodiment of My Name, the Maker, the Creator. Its
manifestations are diversified by varying causes, and in this diversity there
are signs for men of discernment. Nature is God's Will and is its expression
in and through the contingent world. It is a dispensation of Providence
ordained by the Ordainer, the All-Wise. Were anyone to affirm that it is the
Will of God as manifested in the world of being, no one should question this
assertion. It is endowed with a power whose reality men of learning fail to
grasp. Indeed a man of insight can perceive naught therein save the effulgent
splendour of Our Name, the Creator. Say: This is an existence which knoweth
no decay, and Nature itself is lost in bewilderment before its revelations, its
compelling evidences and its effulgent glory which have encompassed the
universe" (Bahá'u'lláh, Tablets of
Bahá'u'lláh, p. 142).
[30] "All creation is
made subject to the laws of nature, but man has been able to conquer these laws
... to man God has given such wonderful power that he can guide, control and
overcome nature ... man can govern nature ... man has been created master of
nature, how foolish it is of him to become her slave" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
Paris Talks, pp. 122-123).
[31]
"They that see thee shall narrowly look upon thee, and consider
thee, saying, Is this the man that made the earth to
tremble, that
did shake kingdoms; That made the world as a wilderness, and destroyed the
cities thereof; that opened not
the house of his prisoners?" (Isaiah
14:16-17).
[32] " The whole earth is at rest, and is
quiet: they break forth into singing. Yea, the fir trees rejoice at thee, and
the cedars
of Lebanon, saying, Since thou art laid down, no feller is
come up against us" (Isaiah 14: 7-8)
[33] "Howl, O gate; cry, O city; thou, whole
Palestina, art dissolved: for there shall come from the north a smoke, and
none shall be alone in his appointed times. What shall one then
answer the messengers of the nation? That the LORD
hath founded Zion,
and the poor of his people shall trust in it" (Isaiah 14:31-32).
[34]
Peter Newman discusses these two images in more detail, with regards to
ecology, in his essay "Our Environment - Past, Present and Future", in The
Environment. Our Common Heritage.
[35] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, p. 363.
See also ibid., p.407, and Secret of
Divine Civilization, p. 78.
[36] This term is used,
from a Christian point of view, to refer to the Jewish Bible. The original
Jewish Bible consisted of 24 books (certain books were put together and counted
as one - counting each book separately, it would come up to 39
books).
In 300 B.C., Jews in the Greek Exile translated the Bible into
Greek ("Septuaginta"), and added 7 more books to the canon (46 books total).
The Catholics (in 382 C.E.) and the Orthodox (in 692 C.E.) accepted this
compilation, whereas the Protestants do not include those additional 7 books in
their Bible translations (thus having only 39 books).
[37] The New Testament
consists of 27 books, namely the 4 Gospels (lit. "glad tidings"), portraying
the ministry of Christ, the Acts (recounting the ministry of the Apostles), 14
letters of Paul and 7 letters by other Apostles, giving guidance to the early
Christian communities, and the Revelation of John (attributed to St. John, the
Evangelist), a mystic visionary work, about the fate of the world, the battle
between Good and Evil ("Armageddon"), and the ultimate victory ("New
Jerusalem"). Those 27 books were selected and translated into Latin in the
4th century; other documents (such as the Gnostic Gospels) were
discarded ("Apocrypha", extra-biblical collections of texts - this term applies
both for Hebrew and Christian texts).
[38] The
Bahá'í Holy Writings are too numerous to be listed here in
detail; what follows, is a very brief presentation of the most important texts;
for a comprehensive list of Bahá'í Writings, available in
English, see Peter Smith, The Babi and Bahá'í Religions,
pp. 229-35.
Among the major works of
Bahá'u'lláh are the Most Holy Book (Kitab-i-Aqdas),
containing the laws of the new dispensation; the Book of Certitude
(Kitab-i-Iqan), the major doctrinal work of the Faith, The Hidden
Words, "jewel-like thoughts cast out of the mind of the Manifestation of
God to admonish and counsel men" (Shoghi Effendi, Unfolding Destiny, p.
456); The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys, his major mystical
treatises; and the Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh, revealed after the
Kitab-i-Aqdas.
Some Answered Questions, a collection of
authenticated table-talks, can be considered as most important work of
'Abdu'l-Bahá (See Shoghi Effendi, The Importance of Deepening,
pp. 26-8, 37); Paris Talks and Promulgation of Universal Peace
are further, albeit less authoritative collections of talks given by
'Abdu'l-Bahá (see Universal House of Justice, quoted in Lights of
Guidance, p.439).
[39] Shoghi Effendi wrote a condensed
history of the first century of the Bahá'í Faith (God
Passes By), and several extensive, book-like letters, like The Advent of
Divine Justice, The Promised Day is Come and a collection of
letters, The World-Order of Bahá'u'lláh,
among which 'The Dispensation of Bahá'u'lláh' is of invaluable
theological importance, claryfying the station of the Central Figures of the
Faith.
The estimated figures for the total number of
individual tablets are as follows: Bahá'u'lláh, 7,160 tablets
archived, 15,000 total estimated to have been written; 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
15,549 tablets archived, 30,800 total estimated to have been written; Shoghi
Effendi, 16,370 letters archived, 30,100 total estimated to have been written
(Bahá'í Archives: Preserving and Safeguarding the Sacred Texts,"
in 'Andalíb magazine, 12.48 (Fall 1993).
"It must always be remembered that
authoritative interpretation of the Teachings was, after 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
the exclusive right of the Guardian, and fell within the 'sacred and prescribed
domain' of the Guardianship, and therefore the Universal House of Justice
cannot and will not infringe upon that domain" (Lights of Guidance, p.
312).
[40] Thomas, Moral Development Theories,
p. 10.
[41] The Covenant regulates the question of
authorized successorship and deals with the issues of interpretation (conferred
upon 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, respectively), and legislation
(The Universal House of Justice, instituted by Bahá'u'lláh).
[42]
Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come, rm 5.
[43] The Universal House
of Justice addresses this issue in a message to the "peoples of the world",
written in 1985, in commemoration of the UN International Year of Peace: "Those
who have held blindly and selfishly to their particular orthodoxies, who have
imposed on their votaries erroneous and conflicting interpretations of the
pronouncements of the Prophets of God, bear heavy responsibility ... Had
humanity seen the Educators of its collective childhood in their true
character, as agents of one civilizing process, it would no doubt have reaped
incalculably greater benefits from the cumulative effects of their successive
missions. This, alas, it failed to do."
[44]
One "error" that many Christians attribute to Christ, was his expectation to
return soon, i.e., within the life-time of his followers (see Matt. 10:23;
16:28; 24:34).
[45] For the historic information of this
paragraph see Fischer, Linker Jesus, Rechte Kirche (Leftwing Jesus,
Rightwing Church), pp. 123-4.
[46] The term "inspirational reading" is used
here to refer to the obligation of reading in the Writings twice a day
(mornings and evenings). "[T]o read a single verse with joy and radiance" is
preferable to reading " with lassitude all the Holy Books of God" - we should
"lighten" and "uplift" our souls, not "weary them and weigh them down"
(Bahá'u'lláh, The Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 73).
[47] Bahá'u'lláh, The
Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 85.
[48] Shoghi Effendi, The Importance of
Deepening, p. 19.
[]49 Ibid., p.
24.
[50] Ibid., p. 24.
[51] Ibid., p. 25.
See also the numerous explanations of 'Abdu'l-Bahá on
Christian subjects and Shoghi Effendi's mandate to reconciliate the followers
of the other religions (for example, The Promised Day Is Come, p.
107).
[52] Ibid., p. 30.
[53] 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
The Importance of Deepening, p. 9.
[54]
Universal House of Justice , cited in Lights of Guidance,
pp. 312-3.
[55] "Nothing whatever can, in this Day,
inflict a greater harm upon this Cause than dissension and strife, contention,
estrangement and apathy, among the loved ones of God"
(Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, p. 9).
[56]
See Hidden Words, Arabic # 13 and # 22.
[57]
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, p. 120
(Chapter 29). The main point, that 'Abdu'l-Bahá makes in this talk is,
that even the Prophets of God would, "without committing any sin or fault, but
simply because they are the posterity of Adam, have become without reason
guilty sinners, and until the day of the sacrifice of Christ were held captive
in hell in painful torment".
[58]
Ibid., p. 123 (Chapter 30).
[59] "According to the
Bahá'í conception, the soul of man, or in other words his inner
spiritual self or reality, is not dualistic. There is no such thing, as the
Zoroastrians believe, as a double reality in man, a definite higher self and a
lower self. These two tendencies for good or evil are but manifestations of a
single reality or self. The latter is capable of development in either way.
All depends fundamentally on the training or education which man receives.
Human nature is made up of possibilities both for good and evil. True religion
can enable it to soar in the highest realm of the spirit, while its absence
can, as we already witness around us, cause it to fall to the lowest depths of
degradation and misery." Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Lights of Guidance,
p. 208 (#698).
[60] Mark 12:30.
[61] 1 Thess. 5:23.
[62 ]See Gen. 2:7; Luke
1:47; Rom 1:9; 2 Cor. 2:13 a.o.
[63]
For example the "living soul " (King James, Darby), that man
became, when God had "breathed into his nostrils the
breath of life"
(Gen. 2:7), has been translated with "living being" in other versions (RSV).
The original Hebrew word
"nefesch" stands for any living being,
filled with the "breath of life" (Hebrew: "ruach"). "Ruach" is usually
translated
with "spirit" (see for instance, Gen. 6:17), but also used
when describing thoughts or emotions - and thus becoming
synonyms
with "mind" and "heart" (For example, 1 Sam. 1:15: "I am a woman of a
`sorrowful spirit' (King James,
Darby)/'sorely troubled' (RSV): I
have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but have poured out my soul before
the
LORD"; 1 Kings 1:5: "Why is thy spirit so `sad' (King
James)/'sullen' (Darby)/'vexed' (RSV), that thou eatest no
bread?";
Gen. 41:8: "And it came to pass in the morning, that his spirit was troubled"
a.o.).
[64]
"How much more grievous would it be, were aught else to be mentioned in that
Presence, were man's heart, his tongue, his mind, or his soul, to be busied
with any one but the Well-Beloved" (Bahá'u'lláh,
Gleanings, p. 55);
[65]"...thou hast, with all thine heart, thy soul and
inmost being, busied thyself with the vanities of the world"
(Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, p.
226).
See, for example,
Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, chapters 80-83, 86;
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, Part 4 (chapters 46-73);
Paris Talks, chapters 11, 18, 20, 29, 31, 34, 35, 57.
Among the
first books, that correlate the Bahá'í teachings to Psychology
and Pedagogy, are Daniel C. Jordan, Becoming your true self; H.B.Danesh,
The Psychology of Spirituality; J.A.McLean, Dimensions in
Spirituality.
Other Bahá'í authors, notably in
German speaking Europe, link Bahá'í ideas to their field of
expertise (Erik Blumenthal - Adlerian Psychology; Toni & Theo Schoenacker -
Consultation; Nossrat Peseschkian - Family Therapy).
[66]
Becoming your true self, pp. 18-19.
The key passage, that
Jordan is alluding to, reads as follows: "Having created the world and all that
liveth and moveth therein, He, through the direct operation of His
unconstrained and sovereign Will, chose to confer upon man the unique
distinction and capacity to know Him and to love Him - a capacity that must
needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying
the whole of creation" (Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, p.
65).
[67]
Ibid., p. 18
[68] Danesh, The Psychology of
Spirituality, p. 63.
[69] McLean,
Dimensions in Spirituality, p.162.
[70] Ibid., pp.
169-13.
[71] "Personality is one
of two kinds. One is the natural or God-given personality which the Western
thinkers call individuality. Individuality is the inner aspect of man which is
not subject to change. The second is personality. Personality is the acquired
virtues and perfections, with which man is adorned. When the individuality of
man, i.e., his God-given natural virtues, is adorned with acquired virtues and
perfections then we have character".
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Star of
the West, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 38 (quoted in McLean, p. 171).
[72] J.A.McLean,
Dimensions in Spirituality, p. 172.
[73] Thomas, Moral Development Theories,
p. 6.
[74] Ibid., p. 9.
[75] Christ provided such an example, when he
broke the Sabbath, in order to perform a healing miracle (i.e., "to do well"):
"And, behold, there was a man which had his hand withered. And they asked him,
saying, Is it lawful to heal on
the sabbath days? that they might
accuse him. And he said unto them, What man shall there be among you, that
shall
have one sheep, and if it fall into a pit on the sabbath day,
will he not lay hold on it, and lift it out? How much then is a
man
better than a sheep? Wherefore it is lawful to do well on the sabbath days"
(Matt. 12:10-12).
In the Bahá'í Writings, many
times moral principles are worded very strongly; at the same time, they are
often balanced
with the concept of a situational ethics: "Consider
that the worst of qualities and most odious of attributes, which is the
foundation of all evil, is lying. No worse or more blameworthy quality than
this can be imagined to exist; it is the destroyer of all human perfections and
the cause of innumerable vices. There is no worse characteristic than this; it
is the foundation of all evils. Notwithstanding all this, if a doctor consoles
a sick man by saying, "Thank God you are better, and there is hope of your
recovery," though these words are contrary to the truth, yet they may become
the consolation of the patient and the turning point of the illness. This is
not blameworthy" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, pp
215-216).
[76]
Christ's admonitions not to be proud of one's good deeds and not to seek
approvement for them, are a case in point:
"Therefore when thou doest
thine alms, do not sound a trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do in the
synagogues and
in the streets, that they may have glory of men.
Verily I say unto you, They have their reward... And when thou prayest,
thou shalt not be as the hypocrites are: for they love to pray
standing in the synagogues and in the corners of the streets,
that
they may be seen of men. Verily I say unto you, They have their reward...
Moreover when ye fast, be not, as the
hypocrites, of a sad
countenance: for they disfigure their faces, that they may appear unto men to
fast. Verily I say unto
you, They have their reward" (Matt. 6:2; 6:5;
6:16).
[77] "Judge not, and ye shall not be judged:
condemn not, and ye shall not be condemned: forgive, and ye shall be
forgiven...And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's
eye, but perceivest not the beam that is in thine own
eye? Either how
canst thou say to thy brother, Brother, let me pull out the mote that is in
thine eye, when thou thyself
beholdest not the beam that is in thine
own eye? Thou hypocrite, cast out first the beam out of thine own eye, and then
shalt thou see clearly to pull out the mote that is in thy brother's
eye" (Luke 6:37; 6:41-42).
The same notion can be found in
the Bahá'í Writings: "If the fire of self overcome you, remember
your own faults and
not the faults of My creatures, inasmuch as every
one of you knoweth his own self better than he knoweth
others"
(Bahá'u'lláh, Hidden Words, Persian #
66); "How couldst thou forget thine own faults and busy thyself with the faults
of others? Whoso doeth this is accursed of Me... Breathe not the
sins of others so long as thou art thyself a sinner.
Shouldst thou transgress this command, accursed wouldst
thou be, and to this I bear witness...Know thou of a truth: He
that
biddeth men be just and himself committeth iniquity is not of Me, even though
he bear My name" (Bahá'u'lláh,
Hidden Words,
Arabic # 26 - 28).
[78] "Put up again thy
sword into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the
sword" (Matt. 26:52).
[79] See Karlheinz
Deschner, Abermals kraehte der Hahn (And the cock crew again), pp.
505-6.
Deschner quotes Tertullian, for whom "love for the
enemy" was the main command, and who wrote, that with
the disarmament
of Peter "the Lord has taken away the sword of every soldier". Cyprian
complained, that "the
whole earth is soaked with blood"; he critized
the morality of condemning an individual who committed murder, but
regarding "murdering in the name of the state" as "bravery". Origines
regarded Isaiah's prophecy of peace
("and they shall beat their
swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks: nation shall not
lift up sword
against nation, neither shall they learn war any more",
Isaiah 2:4) as fulfilled and binding for the Christians.
[80]
Ibid., p. 506.
[81]
See Fischer, Linker Jesus, Rechte Kirche, pp.
129-32.
In Hellenistic times, wars were fought with the
assistance of Gods, and the Roman Church continued this tradition. The
"labarum", a banner with the initials of Christ, created as early as 317, was
carried in front of the army of the first Christian emperor. The synode of
Arelate (314) decided to excommunicate deserting soldiers, whereas 80 years
earlier (235), the Roman bishop Hippolyt forbid Christians to become soldiers,
and threatened them with excommunication if they disobeyed.
See also Deschner, Abermals kraehte der Hahn,
chapter 65.
[82]
In the words of Christ, to let the "tares and the wheat grow together until
the harvest" (Parable of the good and bad seeds, Matt. 13:24-30).
[83] Many of these groups
have attacked the corruption and luxury of the Papal Court (like the "radical
Franciscans"), or developped doctrines which, even though opposed to Church
doctrine, were equally based on the Bible (like the Arians). In other words, it
is not always so clear, whose views were right or wrong, and Christ's warning
in the parable mentioned above, not to root up the tares, "lest while ye gather
up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them", gets an ominous overtone.
It is impossible to justify for example the complete extinction of a
population, as in the case of the Albigensians in France, which meant the
"uprootal" and destruction of the whole Provencialian culture during a 20year
crusade in the 13th century.
[84] Berkhof, Kirche
und Kaiser, quoted in Deschner, p.479 (in my translation).
[85] It should be noted,
however, that certain Christian groups, like the Mennonites (16th
cent.) and the Quakers (17th cent.) have rejected warfare
categorically, and tried to re-connect to the spirit of early Christianity. The
Quakers received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1947 (Deschner, p. 514)
[86]
With reference to the rejection of war in early Christianity,
moral theologists claim that this was because of the dangerous influence of the
Emperor's cult in the pagan army, not because of a general rejection of a "just
war". This argument can easily be refuted by the fact, that some of the early
Christians were not against the profession of soldiery during times of peace,
only against participation in wars. The "dangerous influence" of the Emperor's
cult would have been effective during times of peace as well. Furthermore, not
only participation in wars was forbidden in early Christianity, but any
activity, that would have led to the death of a person (self-defense, death
penalty, even denunciation, leading to capital punishment).
See
Schilling, Moraltheologie, p.430 (for the argument) and Deschner,
pp.508-9 (for the counter arguments).
Christ's expulsion of
the money-changers out of the temple (John 2:14-17) has been taken as
justification for violence, but is is a long way from the "cleansing of the
temple" without any bloodshed to the funeral piles of the Inquisition
(Deschner, p. 495).
Christ's statement, "Think not that I am come to
send peace on earth: I came not to send peace, but a sword" (Matt.
10:34) was used as excuse as well. It is clear, both from Christ's
description of the outcome (not to kill, but to "to set a
man at
variance against his father, and the daughter against her mother, and the
daughter in law against her mother in
law"), and from a contextual
interpretation (see Hebrews 4:12; Rev. 1:16) that this is a metaphoric
reference to the
"Word of God", separating believers from
unbelievers, and not a proclamation of war. For a comprehensive list of
"excuses" see Deschner, pp. 495-8.
[87]
For Christ's repeated admonitions to beware of "the deceitfulness
of riches" and to focus on spiritual rather than material wealth, see, for
example, Mark 10:21-25; Luke 6:20-24; Matt. 6:19-21; 13:22; 19:23-24.
[88] For Christ's
indiscriminatory attirude towards women, see, for example, Matt. 9:20-22;
15:22-28; 26:6-13; Luke 7:19-21; 10:38-42; John 4:6-30; women accompanying and
supporting him (Matt. 27:55-56; Mark 15:39-40; Luke 8:2-3); women being chosen
first (!) to witness the resurrected Christ and instructed to inform the
apostles (Mark 16:1011; Matt. 28:1-10; Luke 24:1-12; John 20:1-18); women as
leaders in the early community (Rom. 16:1-6, 12-16; Phil. 1:2; Kol. 4:15; 2
Tim. 4:19-21).
[89]
See 1 Tim. 3:4; Titus 1:6.
[90] "The first Glad-Tidings which the Mother
Book hath, in this Most Great Revelation, imparted unto all the peoples of the
world is that the law of holy war hath been blotted out from the Book"
(Bahá'u'lláh, Tablets, p. 21).
"In former
religions such ordinances as holy war, destruction of books, the ban on
association and companionship with other peoples or on reading certain books
had been laid down and affirmed according to the exigencies of the time;
however, in this mighty Revelation, in this momentous Announcement, the
manifold bestowals and favours of God have overshadowed all men, and from the
horizon of the Will of the Ever-Abiding Lord, His infallible decree hath
prescribed that which We have set forth above" (Bahá'u'lláh,
Tablets, p. 28).
[91] "In connection with your application for exemption from active military
service, the Guardian trusts that the authorities will give careful
consideration to this matter, and will find it possible to relieve the
Bahá'í friends from the necessity of serving in the army in a
combatant capacity. Should they, however, refuse to grant such exemption, the
believers should unhesitatingly assure them of their unqualified obedience and
of their readiness to join and serve in the army in whatever manner the
government deems best" (Shoghi Effendi, Unfolding Destiny, p.134).
[92] On the societal
level, the principle of collective security enunciated by
Bahá'u'lláh (see Gleanings from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, CXVII) and elaborated by Shoghi Effendi (see the
Guardian's letters in The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh) does not
presuppose the abolition of the use of force, but prescribes "a system in which
Force is made the servant of Justice", and which provides for the existence of
an international peace-keeping force that "will safeguard the organic unity of
the whole commonwealth" (Bahá'u'lláh, Kitab-i-Aqdas,
Notes, p. 241).
[93] Thomas, Moral
Development Theories, p. 9.
[94] In the Bible, this
concept is expressed in the parable of the talents (see Matt.
25:14-30).
Bahá'u'lláh uses a similar allegory: "The
whole duty of man in this Day is to attain that share of the flood of grace
which God poureth forth for him. Let none, therefore, consider the largeness
or smallness of the receptacle. The portion of some might lie in the palm of a
man's hand, the portion of others might fill a cup, and of others even a
gallon-measure" (Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, p. 8).
[95] Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Lights of
Guidance, p. 581
It is interesting to note that the word "strive"
appears around 380 times in the Bahá'í Writings (mostly in the
context of moral development and teaching the Faith).
[96]
"...Satan, by which we mean the natural inclinations of the lower
nature. This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan - the evil ego within
us, not an evil personality outside" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, p.287).
See also 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
explanation of the Non-Existence of Evil (Some Answered Questions,
chapt. 74).
"Regarding your question relative to the
condition of those people who are described in the Gospel as being possessed of
devils: This should be interpreted figuratively; devil or satan is symbolic of
evil and dark forces yielding to temptation" (Shoghi Effendi, quoted in
Lights of Guidance, p. 514).
There is at least one
indication in the Bible, that would back up an allegoric interpretation of
"Satan", as suggested in
the Bahá'í Writings: "Let no
man say when he is tempted, I am tempted of God: for God cannot be tempted with
evil,
neither tempteth he any man: But every man is tempted, when he
is drawn away of his own lust, and enticed" (James
1:13-14).
[97]
"Watch ye and pray, lest ye enter into temptation. The spirit truly is ready,
but the flesh is weak" (Mark 14:38).
See also the exhortation for
married couples to balance their spiritual and physical needs (1 Cor.
7:5).
The same concept is expressed by Bahá'u'lláh
(Gleanings, p. 106; 107).
[98]
"There hath no temptation taken you but such as is common to man: but God is
faithful, who will not suffer you to be
tempted above that ye are
able; but will with the temptation also make a way to escape, that ye may be
able to bear it"
(1 Cor.10:13).
[99]
Thomas, Moral Development Theories, p. 9.
[100] 'Abdu'l-Bahá defined stagnation
as the beginning of a process of deterioration: "You must ever press forward,
never standing still; avoid stagnation, the first step to a backward movement,
to decay" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks, p. 90).
[101] Peter recognizes
the true station of Christ and his faith becomes the foundation-stone of
Christianity (see Matt. 16:18), only to be addressed as "Satan" a moment later,
when he does not want to accept the necessity of Christ's sacrifice (see Matt.
16:21-23). He claims to be prepared to die for Christ (Matt. 26:35), but denies
him thrice, when put to the test (Matt. 26:69-75). Other incidents report
traits of violence (John 18:10) and dishonesty (see Gal.
2:11-14).
Paul renders a moving description of his soul's
struggle against human temptations in his letters to the Romans (Rom. 7:14-25).
The topos of the "weak flesh", fighting against the "willing spirit", has
already been expressed by Christ (Matt. 26:41), and it may well be, that Paul's
reflections are rather philosophical than autobiographical in nature,
expounding the concept of man's dual nature.
[102] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablets pp.
108-9; quoted in McLean, Dimensions in Spirituality, p. 88.
[103] McLean, p. 88.
[104]
Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings, pp. 155-156.
[105]
See 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, p. 240 (chapter 66).
[106] See
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks, pp. 87-88 (chapter 29).
[+CHAPTER2]
"The Woman and the Child"
A comparison of archetypal key elements in early Christian and Bábí-Bahá'í History
Introduction
The underlying premise for my comparing certain key features of Christianity
and the Bahá'í Faith is the phenomenon of recurring archetypal
events and
dramatis personae in each religious dispensation. Such an
axiom is based on the notion of 'spiritual forces', being at work in the
universe
[1], and a spiral concept of history.
[2]
In my understanding, the 'return', i.e., the archetypal reccurence of main
characters unto the stage of life constitutes one of these 'spiritual forces'
operant in the world, and I will focus on this feature in the following
chapters.
The first chapter acknowledges the fundamental limitation, due to the lack of
sources, which characterizes the comparison of a twothousand year old religion
with one that only started last century. However, the phenomenon of
'reconstructing history' is not determined by access to historical information
alone. Selective perception is still at play, governed by our worldview and
premises. Two problematic and reductionistic perspectives are addressed. The
first, a sexist orientation, is briefly touched upon, the second, a
materialistic-secular outlook on life is dealt with more extensively.
The second chapter provides a brief overview of the doctrine of 'return' from a
Bahá'í perspective.
The third chapter deals with the archetypal appearance of one or more prominent
women in each religion, and explores the link between Tahirih, the immortal
heroine of the Bábí-Bahá'í Era, and Mary Magdalene
who might just as well have been a Christian antecedent of hers.
The fourth chapter argues for the validity of miracles and takes Jesus' virgin
birth as a case in point.
The fifth chapter looks into the mysterious source of divine knowledge that all
the Prophets claimed to have access to, and which is quite distinct from
traditional, acquired knowledge.
The sixth chapter suggests that this capacity of divine knowledge is inherent
in these prophetic figures and, consequently, is observable already during
their childhood years.
Finally, it is one more time emphasized that a fruitful study of religions,
both intrinsically and comparatively, would have to apply an integrative
paradigm, enriching the historical critical method and a rationalistic
orientation with spiritual principles.
1. Reconstruction of history
For scholars of religion and historians, it has been equally fascinating to try
to reconstruct the formation of the early Christian community, as it has proven
difficult, due to the lack of written sources and the difficulty of
distinguishing fact from fiction from the few sources available. The process of
reconstruction becomes even more complex, when one takes the various
ideological positions and historic axioms into account, that have stressed and
idealized certain features of this original community.
It has been portrayed as pure and holy, following the true teachings of Christ
(as opposed to the later process of corruption), and as united and loving,
having overcome all ethnic and social differences. It has been regarded as
detached and voluntarily poor, sharing all the possessions with each other
("Christian communism"). It has been described as democratic and decentralized
(as opposed to the evolving authority and exclusivity of the Catholic Church),
but equally as having been under the guidance and leadership of the Apostles
(justifying the Papal authority). It has been seen as liberal and favourable
towards women (as opposed to the later exclusion and degradation of women), but
also as conservative and patriarchal, exhorting women to be submissive and
obedient. All these perspectives reveal more about the viewer than the viewed
and confirm Gustave Le Bon's dictum of "Reason creates science; sentiments and
creeds shape history."
With regards to the history of the Bahá'í Faith, the interested
reader finds a wealth of written sources, diaries, biographies, community
histories, reports and official documents, much of it authenticated and
available for study, much still waiting to be translated into Western
languages. There are basically no documents available, describing the
development of the early Christian community from an external perspective,
whereas the early history of the Babi and Bahá'í Faith has
attracted considerable attention from orientalists, diplomats and scholars, as
well as from antagonistic proponents.
However, the premise of the subjective reconstruction of history remains valid,
in spite of having so many sources available, and still being so close to the
time of the events. One of these reductionist approaches to history, in fact to
reality as a whole, is based on sexism, on the supposed superiority of men over
women. Such a limited perspective naturally pays little attention to the
contribution of women to the process of advancing civilization.
Nakhjavání points out how in Nabíl's
Dawn-Breakers,
an extensive historical narrative about Bábí and early
Bahá'í history, most of the Bábí women, who endured
the same sufferings as the men, "have no names and Nabíl does not go out
of his way to mention them."
She acknowledges the context of nineteenth-century "chauvinistic" Persia, and
Nabil's simple background, but omitting, for example, the story of Mulla
Husayn's sister, who was given the title "Nightingale of Paradise" by
Bahá'u'lláh, is for her "the most damning evidence of our
failure, as Bahá'ís, to live according to the ideal of equality."
She invites the reader "to reassess what we consider 'significant' in history,
to explore the drama from a fresh perspective, with new actors, to marvel at
the old story rewritten."
[3]
Another premise, commonly accepted by contemporary historians, is a secular
approach to history.
[4] Concepts deriving from
religious doctrine, such as the possibility of divine intervention, and the
distinct nature of the founders of religion (being endowed with a preexistent
soul, innate knowledge, and supernatural powers) are ruled out categorically.
Consequently, any 'miraculous' events and phenomena are denied, ignored,
downplayed, or rationalized. A meta-historic perspective, such as Shoghi
Effendi provided for the first Bahá'í Century (covering the
period from 1844-1944),
[5] would not be taken
seriously in the academic world, and so it is understandable, yet unfortunate,
that also some Bahá'í scholars yield to such a reductionistic
paradigm.
[6]
It seems to be an archetypal reaction of the learned of each age, in which a
Manifestation of God
[7] appears, to denounce
their claim for divine inspiration and the originality of their writings. The
following passage, in which Bahá'u'lláh bemoans the plight of the
Báb, could easily refer to Christ or any of the other "Chosen
Mouthpieces" as well:
No sooner did He reveal Himself, than all the people rose up against Him. By
some He was denounced as one that hath uttered slanders against God, the Almighty, the Ancient of Days.
Others regarded Him as a man smitten with madness ...Still others disputed His claim to be the
Mouthpiece of God, and stigmatized Him as one who had stolen and used as his the words of the Almighty, who had
perverted their meaning, and mingled them with his own.[8]
Modern historians would generally take a more positive stance. They would
acknowledge that the founders of religion sincerely believed in their divine
mission, that they were extraordinary individuals, with high moral qualities,
alert to the needs of their time. They would not, however, accept their "claim
to be the Mouthpiece of God", but rather try to sketch their 'development', to
analyze the body of knowledge they had access to, the interactions they had
had, which would have led them to their 'subjective belief' to be divinely
inspired.
The following quote is a good example of such an approach. Amanat tries to
identify "traces of Christian influence" in the Báb's Writings, and
notices the Báb's "preoccupation with Christ", which he explains with
the like-mindedness of the two characters, and the 'role-model' that the
personality of Christ must have provided for the Báb.
This preoccupation with Christ was beyond the common Muslim knowledge of the
time, which was
mainly confined to the Qur'an and other Islamic sources. He must have taken his
references directly
from the Gospel, the study of which had given him an understanding of
revelation and divinity some-
what different from that of the Qur'an. No doubt the Báb found the
personality of Christ
appealing and his message of affection and self-sacrifice in conformity with
his own...
The idea of Second Coming, once blended with the apocalyptic role assigned to
Jesus in
Shi'ism, had become a very compelling model for a notion of a savior
considerably different
from the destructive and vengeful Mahdi of the Shi'ite prophecies.[9]
Amanat further describes the "active role", that the Báb's early
believers had played, combining, on their part, "a strong desire to discern the
messianic signs", rooted in their background of Islamic (Shaykhi) millenial
expectancy, with the Báb's "sincere belief in his own inspiration".
Revelation, in other words, as result of an interactive group-work, with the
Prophet depending on able disciples, who would help Him to formulate and
develop His doctrines.
One can suggest, then, that if Mulla Husayn at that particular moment had
not met him in Shiraz,
the course of Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad's spiritual development might have taken a
very
different direction. The role performed by Mulla Husayn and other early
believers, who
directed this undefined and still unintelligible inspirations of the Báb
into the preconceived
framework of Shaykhi prophecies, was far greater than is usually attributed to
them. The ideas
contained in the Báb's writings soon created a theoretical system
different from that of Shaykhi
or in some instances Shi'ite thought. Yet in practice the early believers
elaborated on these ideas,
mostly with the benefit of their own Shaykhi outlook.[10]
Cole employs a similar perspective, highlighting the influence of "hundreds of
women", who must have contributed to Bahá'u'lláh's thoughts on
gender equality.
It is clear that Bahá'u'lláh carried on an extensive
correspondence with female believers. Although
he was hardly alone among Middle Eastern men in rethinking gender relations in
the 1880s, it is
remarkable that he did so through correspondence with hundreds of women
themselves. Although
Bahá'í orthodoxy would insist that in these letters he revealed
the truth to them, and so that the
relationship was highly unequal, it seems clear that in other areas
Bahá'u'lláh was influenced by
his followers (he had not wanted to write a book of laws, for instance, but
yielded to a flood of
requests to do so), and there is no reason to reject out of hand the notion
that his reformist ideas
about women derived in part from an extensive interaction with them through
correspondence.[11]
Space does not permit a detailed analysis of these (and other) passages, which
attempt to 'explain' and de-mystify the source of knowledge the Prophets have
access to. My purpose was to provide some examples of seemingly 'objective'
historical analysis, which nevertheless rests on a priori premises, based on a
secular worldview.
[12]
It is not the method of critical historical analysis
per se that is
problematic, but rather the implicit premises of a secular paradigm, which
categorically (but rarely
expressis verbis) exclude any metaphysical
considerations.
Historical analysis, operating within a Bahá'í doctrinal
framework, can be a useful, even necessary tool. Lambden highlights the
importance of employing this methodology for the sake of studying primary,
nineteenth-century Bábí and Bahá'í historical
sources.
In studying these sources, it is important to develop an awareness of their
frequent hagiographical,
apologetical, or polemical orientations and an ability to recognize and
understand the function of such
levels of thought as meta-historical legend and myth. Failure to acknowledge
or to understand such
dimensions in the sources can result in an unconscious fundamentalism that
will lead both to a distorted
presentation of historical facts and an inability to divine the religious
message conveyed in these sources...
It is thus important that the study of Bábí and
Bahá'í doctrine - the universe of religious discourse - go
hand in hand with any historical analysis. The precritical nature of a good
many of the sources demands
this methodological orientation.[13]
I agree in principle. What is necessary though, is a careful evaluation of the
underlying premises, and the eventual integration of scientific and religious
axioms.
[14] Historical analysis should not be
used to "cast the Faith into a mould, which is essentially foreign to its
nature, taking no account of the spiritual forces, which Bahá'ís
see as its foundation."
[15] And
Bahá'í scholars are warned not to fall "into the trap of
distorting the picture by adopting what is, in essence, a materialistic and
localized stance."
[16]
2. Aspects of a spiritual paradigm The doctrine of 'return'
[17]
One aspect of this 'spiritual foundation', that can be fruitfully employed in a
historic comparison, is the doctrine of 'return', not to be confused with the
belief in 'reincarnation'.
The Bahá'í view of "reincarnation" is essentially different from the Hindu
conception.
The Bahá'ís believe in the return of the attributes and qualities, but maintain
that the essence
or the reality of things cannot be made to return. Every being keeps its own
individuality,
but some of his qualities can be transmitted.[18]
The last sentence of this quote deserves special attention. It suggests that
some kind of personal connection between individual souls could be assumed, as
opposed to a strictly impersonal reccurence of qualities and attributes. Such a
personal linkage was alluded to by Báb, with regards to his main
disciples, the 'Letters of the Living', being the 'return' of the holy figures
of the Islamic dispensation.
[19]
Bahá'u'lláh broadens this concept by affirming that, with the
coming of each founder of religion, both faithful followers and opponents
'return'. The early believers "can be regarded, in name, in reality, in deeds,
in words, and in rank, as the 'return' of those who in a former Dispensation
had achieved similar distinctions",
[20] while
"those people of wickedness were the self-same people who in every age opposed
and caviled at the Prophets and Messengers of God, till they finally caused
them all to suffer martyrdom."
[21]
Obviously, not all the Prophets and Messengers of God have suffered martyrdom
in the literal sense of the word. Hence, it can be inferred from
Bahá'u'lláh's statement, that the archetypal reccurence of
central religious themes is not necessarily an exact re-enactment of
"established 'roles' in the dispensational drama."
[22] Rather, we can witness "a recurrence of certain patterns
in human behaviour",
[23] different events,
with the same spiritual message to divine.
[24]
Momen, in comparing the lives of the founders of six world religions, has
highlighted several such archetypal patterns. An initiatory event signals the
start of their ministry, often followed by a period of seclusion and spiritual
preparation. Then they first gather a small group of disciples whom they teach,
before they start to preach in public and declare openly their mission
(including announcements to religious and political rulers). The gradual
development of their teachings, first perceived as to reinvigorate the old
religion, leads eventually to a decisive break with the past traditions, and a
clash with the established priesthood. Such (external) opposition often causes
'migration' (having to wander around, or even being exiled), and there is also
internal opposition, out of jealousy or envy. Finally, all of them promise the
coming of a future, eschatological figure, and a 'Golden Age'.
[25]
Momen's comparisons constitute a first summary of such 'archetypal patterns',
based on dispersed statements in the Bahá'í primary writings, and
invites further research.
[26]
Among the themes that Momen suggests for further exploration, is "the presence
of a prominent woman in each religious dispensation and the role that she plays
in supporting either the prophet himself or his followers after the prophet's
death."
[27]
3. Archetypal Images of an Ideal Woman
Every religion tells the tale of an outstanding woman. Such prominent women
who, according to Shoghi Effendi, "in the course of successive Dispensations,
have towered, by reason of their intrinsic merits and unique position, above
the rank and file of their sex,"
[28] include
Sarah, Asiyih, the Virgin Mary, Fatimih, Tahirih and Bahiyyih Khanum.
Most of the time, it is qualities like love, compassion, and support, which
distinguish and characterize these figures. Sarah was a life-long and faithful
wife and companion to Abraham. Asiyih, the daughter of the Pharaoh, saved
Moses' life and raised him like a mother. Jesus' mother was completely devoted
to her son, although there is reason to believe that she was not fully aware of
his ministry. Fatimih is described as faithful daughter of Muhammad, and loving
wife to Ali. Bahiyyih Khanum served and supported selflessly her father
Bahá'u'lláh, her brother 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and her nephew
Shoghi Effendi who paid following tribute to her:
Banishing from her mind and heart every earthly attachment, renouncing the
very idea of matrimony, she,
standing resolutely by the side of a Brother whom she was to aid and serve so
well, arose to dedicate her life
to the service of her Father's glorious Cause. Whether in the management of the
affairs of His Household in
which she excelled, or in the social relationships which she so assiduously
cultivated in order to shield both
Bahá'u'lláh and Abdu'l-Bahá, whether in the unfailing attention she paid to the
every day needs of her Father,
or in the traits of generosity, of affability and kindness, which she
manifested, the Greatest Holy Leaf had by
that time abundantly demonstrated her worthiness to rank as one of the noblest
figures intimately associated
with the life-long work of Bahá'u'lláh.[29]
Tahirih, the immortal heroine of the Bábí Faith, certainly
"presents a startling contrast to the former models."
[30] She continually opposed her father in theological
questions, she left her husband (and children), when he failed to support her
on her spiritual quest, and she challenged both Muslims and fellow Babis with
her radical and uncompromising way of proclaiming the new Faith.
The most famous incident of such a challenge is certainly the legendary scene
at the Conference of Badasht in 1848, when Tahirih appeared unveiled in front
of the assemblage, announcing the inauguration of a new dispensation. Shoghi
Effendi has vividly described this scene and the reactions she caused among her
fellow believers.
Fear, anger, bewilderment, swept their inmost souls, and stunned their
faculties. 'Abdu'l-Khaliq-i-
Isfahani, aghast and deranged at such a sight, cut his throat with his own
hands. Spattered with blood,
and frantic with excitement, he fled away from her face. A few, abandoning
their companions,
renounced their Faith. Others stood mute and transfixed before her. Still
others must have recalled
with throbbing hearts the Islamic tradition foreshadowing the appearance of
Fatimih herself unveiled
while crossing the Bridge (Sirat) on the promised Day of Judgment. Quddus,
mute with rage, seemed
to be only waiting for the moment when he could strike her down with the sword
he happened to be
then holding in his hand.
Undeterred, unruffled, exultant with joy, Tahirih arose, and, without the least
premeditation and in a
language strikingly resembling that of the Qur'an, delivered a fervid and
eloquent appeal to the
remnant of the assembly, ending it with this bold assertion: "I am the Word
which the Qa'im is
to utter, the Word which shall put to flight the chiefs and nobles of the
earth!" Thereupon, she
invited them to embrace each other and celebrate so great an occasion. [31]
Contrary to popular Bahá'í belief, this was not the only time
that Tahirih unveiled herself publicly.
It seems that sometimes, when she wanted to make a special point, to raise the
'Clarion call' so to speak, she would unveil, in order to increase the dramatic
effect of her message.
During the month of Muharram, 1847, while Shiite Muslims donned mourning
clothes to
commemorate the martyrdom of the Imam Husayn, Tahirih deliberately excited
their reaction
by dressing in gay colors and appeared unveiled. She urged the
Bábís to celebrate the Báb's
birthday, which fell on the first day of that month.[32]
Other events are similarly less known among non-Persian Bahá'ís.
Following scene took place during
the 1848 conference, mentioned above.
At one time when Quddus was rapt in his devotions, Tahirih rushed out of her
tent brandishing a
sword. "Now is not the time for prayers and prostrations," she declared,
"rather on to the field of
love and sacrifice!"[33]
Tahirih's fervour calls Joan of Arc's heroism to mind, her religious fervour
and compassionate belief in being guided aright - a parallel that has not gone
unnoticed.
34
Less known, generally, are also Tahirih's leadership qualities. Her arrival in
Karbila, 1843, and the influential position she soon acquired within the
Shaykhi community, remain unexplored in Western accounts. Legendary, as Tahirih
has become among Bahá'ís worldwide, these accounts toned her down
considerably, as Maneck observes.
[35]
The paradigmatic ideal, which Tahirih presents, stresses qualities like
courage, assertiveness, passionate devotion to a higher ideal, intelligence,
and eloquence. Traditional 'female' qualities, such as gentleness,
submissiveness and devotion to family, are absent. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
challenges the cliché, which would regard the qualities mentioned above,
as typically 'male'.
Often in history women have been the pride of humanity - for example, Mary,
the mother of Jesus. She was
the glory of mankind. Mary Magdalene, Asiyih, daughter of Pharaoh, Sarah, wife
of Abraham, and innumerable
others have glorified the human race by their excellences. In this day there
are women among the Bahá'ís who far
outshine men. They are wise, talented, well-informed, progressive, most
intelligent and the light of men. They
surpass men in courage. When they speak in meetings, the men listen with great
respect. [36]
It is interesting to note that the qualities 'Abdu'l-Bahá lists above,
describing the virtues of contemporary Bahá'í women, relate to
Tahirih's personality the best, as the following description of hers shows.
She discomfited the learned men of Persia by her brilliancy and fervor.
When she entered a meeting,
even the learned were silent. She was so well versed in philosophy and science
that those in her presence
always considered and consulted her first. Her courage was unparalleled; she
faced her enemies fearlessly
until she was killed.[37]
But Tahirih is not mentioned in this summary of outstanding women.
[38] Who then provides the best historical
example that 'Abdu'l-Bahá may have had in mind, for qualities such as
being well educated, courageous, and eloquent?
It is now that we turn our attention to Mary Magdalene, a woman who
'Abdu'l-Bahá, seemingly in passing, has included in this list. This must
have been startling for a Christian audience, to hear the name of the 'fallen
woman' mentioned alongside with the revered "Mother of God."
[39]
What was her special role, her contribution to humanity, seemingly forgotten
and ignored, that 'Abdu'l-Bahá was alluding to? What are the object
lessons that we can learn from her, and are there archetypal parallels to
Tahirih (and, quite likely, to other outstanding women in religious history),
waiting for us to be uncovered?
A survey of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's writings and talks makes clear that the
reference to Mary Magdalene was no coincidence, no singular occurence. On at
least eight other occasions he draws on her example to make a specific point.
[40]
Again, it is well established in history that where woman has not
participated in human affairs the
outcomes have never attained a state of completion and perfection. On the
other hand, every influential
undertaking of the human world wherein woman has been a participant has
attained importance. This is
historically true and beyond disproof even in religion. Jesus Christ had
twelve disciples and among His
followers a woman known as Mary Magdalene. Judas Iscariot had become a traitor
and hypocrite, and
after the crucifixion the remaining eleven disciples were wavering and
undecided. It is certain from the
evidence of the Gospels that the one who comforted them and reestablished their
faith was Mary Magdalene.[41]
The role of Mary Magdalene to confirm the Apostles in their faith, is the
recurrent theme in most of the passages. In the passage above, this act is
being placed into a larger context, the need for men and women to complement
each other, in order to achieve the best results.
Just as physical accomplishment is complete with two hands, so man and woman,
the two parts
of the social body, must be perfect. It is not natural that either should
remain undeveloped; and
until both are perfected, the happiness of the human world will not be
realized.[42]
'Abdu'l-Bahá then links the issue of equality and education to the
question of peace, and asserts that "universal peace is impossible without
universal suffrage." He predicts,
So it will come to pass that when women participate fully and equally in the
affairs of the world,
when they enter confidently and capably the great arena of laws and politics,
war will cease; for
woman will be the obstacle and hindrance to it. [43]
This prophetic outlook evokes images of the scene again, when Mary entered
'confidently and capably' the assemblage of the disciples, meeting them on
'equal grounds', and hindered them from giving in into their fears and doubts.
She 'participated fully and equally in the affairs' of the early community, and
played a crucial role in overcoming the temporary crisis. Her success was not
only due to her eloquence and steadfastness, but also to the power of her own
exemplary actions, as following passage suggests.
At the time of the ascension of the Spirit (Jesus Christ), the company of
those who accepted the new
Revelation numbered no more than a few souls. So intense was the alarm and
perturbation to which
that event gave rise that, for a time, these souls were quite overcome by their
agitation and confusion.
Then, a few days later, a woman by the name of Mary Magdalene arose,
and, by her own example,
instilled into them a constancy and firmness which enabled them to arise for
the propagation of the
Word of God (emphasis added).[44]
Here 'Abdu'l-Bahá portrays Mary as a courageous woman, venturing out
into a hostile and dangerous environment, firmly determined to fulfill her
mission and propagate the Cause of God. By doing so, she provided a role-model
for the fearful and inhibited group, which had gone into hiding. The parallels
to Tahirih, in terms of courage, determination and leadership qualities, cannot
be overlooked.
The suggested link between Mary Magdalene and Tahirih becomes even stronger,
when one looks at following passage in yet another of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
talks:
After the martyrdom of Christ, to Whom be glory, the disciples were greatly
disturbed and disheartened.
Even Peter had denied Christ and tried to shun Him. It was a woman, Mary
Magdalene, who confirmed
the wavering disciples in their faith, saying, "Was it the body of Christ or
the reality of Christ that ye have
seen crucified? Surely it was His body. His reality is everlasting and
eternal; it hath neither beginning nor
ending. Therefore, why are ye perplexed and discouraged? Christ always spoke
of His being crucified."
Mary Magdalene was a mere villager, a peasant woman; yet she became the means
of consolation and
confirmation to the disciples of Christ.
In the Cause of Bahá'u'lláh there have been women who were superior to men in
illumination, intellect,
divine virtues and devotion to God. Among them was Qurratu'l-'Ayn. When she
spoke, she was listened
to reverently by the most learned men. They were most respectful in her
presence, and none dared to
contradict her. Among the Bahá'í women in Persia today there are Ruhu'llah and
others who are gifted with
knowledge, invincible steadfastness, courage, virtue and power of will. They
are superior to men and
well-known throughout Persia. [45]
Knowledge, steadfastness, courage, virtue and will power - these attributes,
according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, characterize contemporary Persian
Bahá'í women who emulate the example of Tahirih. These assertions
have been confirmed by anthropologist Judith Goldstein, who did field work on
the various religious communities of Yazd, central Iran, between 1973-5. She
observed how Bahá'í women would participate in religious
discussions "in a manner quite different from the style of more traditional
women's conversation...The Bahá'í women's active stance is
expressed in eloquence." Goldstein also reports that the model for these
self-confident and articulate women is Tahirih.
[46]
Equality of the sexes, education, and peace were interdependent and central
themes on 'Abdu'l-Bahá's agenda for his Western, mostly Christian
audiences. It seems that by drawing repeatedly on Mary Magdalene's example, and
establishing a link to Tahirih and her influence in the East,
'Abdu'l-Bahá is suggesting to adopt Christ's leading female disciple as
a role model in the West and to explore and exploit the potentialities this
paradigm has to offer.
'Abdu'l-Bahá's eulogies form a strange contrast to the attempts of
Christian theologians, to downplay the importance of Mary Magdalene's role and
influence among the early disciples. At worst, she was denounced as a mad
woman, "out of whom he [Christ] had cast seven devils" (Mark 16:9, Luke 8:2),
and at best, she was mythologized as "remorseful sinner", which became a
popular
topos in Christian mysticism.
A good example would be Schenke's analysis of the period, following the death
of Christ. He challenges the "complete breakdown" of the Apostle's morale (and
therefore, sees no need to address the role of Mary Magdalene in strengthening
their faith). He also completely ignores the apparitions of Christ, the women
have had (see Mark 16:9-11, Matthew 28:9-10, John 20:14-18), and starts with
the 'first' vision of Peter (according to 1 Cor. 15:4-5), dismissing the Gospel
accounts as "later constructs with apologetical tendencies" (my translation).
[47]
Kraft has a similar view but tries to be more diplomatic. He makes a
distinction between the first apparitions at the empty grave and the ones
before the apostles and believers, which Paul lists.
[48] Since the apostles had all left Jerusalem (according to
Kraft's reading of Mark 14:50, and Matthew 26:56)
[49], the women's role was to act as witnesses for the empty
grave, and to "provide the initial testimony of the realization of Jesus'
resurrection."
[50] What Kraft subtly implies
here, and later explicitly suggests, is that the apparitions in front of the
women were irrelevant for the gathering of the dispersed believers and the
formation of the early community. This was the task and achievement of Peter,
which he undertook, after Christ appeared to him 'first'.
Kraft goes to great lenghts, to 'prove' that the apostles had all left
Jerusalem. This would indeed solve the dilemma, which has puzzled many
theologians - why would Jesus reveal Himself to the women first, and not to the
Apostles? Also, given that the disciples had all left, the embarrassing
situation of women having had to comfort and confirm the men, would not have to
be addressed (as Schenke and Kraft demonstrate). Unfortunately, the gospels are
quite explicit about the role that the women played and the evidence that the
disciples had not left Jerusalem is quite strong.
[51]
Kraft's attempts to devalue these accounts remain less than convincing.
Finally, he urges the reader not to deviate from Paul's list, which provides
'the oldest and most reliable historical account', suggesting, in effect, to
give preference to Paul over the accounts in three of the Gospels.
Conzelmann sympathizes with the view that a second community (or group of
communities) of early Christians existed in Galilee (above all, in Kapernaum).
This would resolve the contradictions between the various gospel accounts,
concerning the place of the first apparitions of Christ. He further challenges
the (common) view that the Galilee apparitions are the older, more authentic
ones. Why would the disciples have returned to Jerusalem, if Galilee was the
"land of the experience of salvation?"
[52]
He is concerned with many more details and ambiguities, but bypasses completely
the issues mentioned above, involving the women in general, and Mary Magdalene
in particular.
Schillebeeckx, in contrast to the more conservative theologians discussed
above, gives sufficient credit to the role of the female disciples. He affirms
that historically, the women have obviously first spread the news of the
resurrected Jesus. He defends Paul's list as representing the official
self-understanding of the church, to base their belief on the
apostolic
testimony. He rejects the notion of anti-feminism, pointing out that also the
account of the two Emmaus disciples has only been accepted after Peter's
testimony (and is not included in the list). In other words, he differentiates
between official and lay experiences of
theophanies, the latter ones
still having their "legitimate place in the biblical report, which is not at
all being concealed in the New Testament." And he concludes with quite a
remarkable concession (compared to the
silentium above): "At the
contrary: Also on the basis of these women's experiences, the cause of Jesus
seems to have been set in motion."
[53]
Schillebeeckx puts more emphasis on the subjective experience of
theophany
and suggests that the disciples, at a turning point and orientating
themselves anew, sensed Christ to be alive (a realization, which would not be
essentially different from one that we could arrive at). This "life
experience", he argues, "has been articulated in
eschatological
language." In this context, he concedes that Mary Magdalene may have played an
important role (a consideration, which comes close to 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
point of view).
Perhaps Mary Magdalene played a role, unknown to us, helping to convince the
disciples that the
new orientation in life, which this Jesus has caused in her life, has not
become meaningless through
Jesus' death, quite the opposite. In these accounts of socalled private
apparitions - accounts of very
intimate, personal religious experiences - the community recognizes their own
experience.[54]
Stressing the inner experience of the resurrection, Schillebeeckx critizes the
"crude and naïve realism", with which Jesus' apparitions have been seen
and understood later on. Nevertheless, miraculous events form an intrinsic part
of religious history. Often, such phenomena are explained as being expressions
of mythology rather than historical facts. But sometimes, in addition to their
inner, symbolic meaning, such phenomena do have an outer, material
manifestation.
[55]
4. Aspects of a spiritual paradigm The acceptance of 'miracles'
A prime example of such a 'miraculous event' would be the birth of Jesus. Not
many scholars would be found nowadays, who would accept the doctrine of the
'virgin birth' as historical. The occurrence of a 'virgin birth' has been a
widespread concept, and a sign for divinity, in the antique world, and the
assumption, that Christianity had laid claim to, and adapted such a popular
notion, seems quite plausible.
[56]
However, that a certain 'miraculous' event resembles the mythological concepts
of other cultures, is not automatically a proof for its own ahistorical origin.
We can equally assume that some myths contain a historical kernel, lost in the
mists of the past. Other myths again, may have had a symblic origin altogether,
destined to convey a spiritual rather than a historical message.
In the case of Christ's virgin birth, its authenticity has been confirmed in
both the Quran and the Bahá'í Writings.
[57]
The line of argument differs substantially though, from the various myths of
the past and the subsequent deification of Christ. Rather than a proof of
divinity, it was a "grievous test" for the people, to recognize such a divinity
in someone, "Who was known amongst the people as fatherless".
[58]
Primarily, it must have been a "grievous test" for Mary, who "bitterly
regretted she had ever been born", anticipating "the cavilings of the infidel
and perverse"
[59], and for Joseph, who, "being
a just man, and not willing to make her a public example, was minded to put her
away privily."
[60] He was persuaded by a dream
though, not to do that. Consequently, he accepted the legal fatherhood, and the
couple, already having been engaged, got married.
[61] It is only logical, to assume that the newly-weds would
have tried to conceal this embarrassing episode as much as possible, and it
seems, successfully.
[62]
Early Christians paid little attention to the virgin birth, let alone regarded
it as a proof of Christ's divinity. It is neither mentioned in the gospels of
Mark and John, nor in the Acts of the Apostles, and it does not play a role in
the theology of Paul. The Codex Syrus Sinaiticus
[63] even mentions explicitely Joseph as being the father of
Jesus.
[64] It was only during the third and
forth century, that this concept came to play an important role, because of
divergent views and ongoing disputes over the nature of Christ, and the
evolving doctrine of Trinity.
[65]
To find themselves "in entire agreement with the most orthodox church views"
[66], seems to have posed a challenge not only to
modern scholars and critical Christians, but also to many early (Western)
Bahá'ís.
'Abdu'l-Bahá's
Some Answered Questions had been published as
early as in 1908,
[67] and
Bahá'u'lláh's
Kitab-i-Iqan was available in English in
1931. Nevertheless, Shoghi Effendi had to repeatedly clarify and emphasize the
Bahá'í position regarding the Virgin Birth.
In 1935, he refutes as heretical the notion that Jesus might have been born
illegitimately, and provides an extensive and convincing argument for the
plausibility of miracles. His reasoning is particularly
interesting and instructive, with regards to reconciling the axioms of a
spiritual paradigm with a rationalistic framework.
It would be sacrilege for a Bahá'í to believe that the parents of Jesus were
illegally married and that
the latter was consequently of an illegal union. Such a possibility cannot be
even conceived by a
believer who recognizes the high station of Mary and the Divine Prophethood of
Jesus Christ. It is
this same false accusation which the people of His Day attributed to Mary that
Bahá'u'lláh indirectly
repudiated in the Iqan. The only alternative therefore is to admit that the
birth of Jesus has been
miraculous. The operation of miracles is not necessarily irrational or
illogical. It does by no means
constitute a limitation of the Omnipotence of God. The belief in the
possibilities of miracles, on the
contrary, implies that God's power is beyond any limitation whatsoever. For it
is only logical to
believe that the Creator, Who is the sole Author of all the laws operating in
the universe, is above
them and can, therefore, if He deems it necessary, alter them at His Own Will.
We, as humans, cannot
possibly attempt to read His Mind, and to fully grasp His Wisdom. Mystery is
therefore an inseparable
part of true religion, and as such, should be recognized by the believers.[68]
Three years later, he wrote again to an individual, who was apparently not
satisfied or convinced with the initial response he got. This letter is
strongly worded, which may have been a reaction to the insistence of the
questioner.
Again with regard to your question relative to the birth of Jesus: He wishes
me to inform you that there
is nothing further he can add to the explanation he gave you in his previous
communication regarding
this point. One thing, however, he wishes again to bring to your attention,
namely that miracles are
always possible, even though they do not constitute a regular channel whereby
God reveals His power to
mankind. To reject miracles on the ground that they imply a breach of the laws
of nature is a very shallow,
well-nigh a stupid argument, inasmuch as God Who is the Author of the universe
can, in His Wisdom and Omnipotence, bring any change, no matter how temporary,
in the operation of the laws which He Himself
has created.[69]
It is not stupid, to believe in miracles. It is stupid, not to believe in them.
Apart from the refreshing polemics, this quote provides one more time the
premise, outlined above, that a scholar with a
'spiritual foundation' would adhere to.
Finally, in a lenghty and weighty epistle to the American believers, Shoghi
Effendi summarizes the Christian doctrines, which are in unison with
Bahá'í beliefs:
As to the position of Christianity, let it be stated without any hesitation
or equivocation that its divine
origin is unconditionally acknowledged, that the Sonship and Divinity of Jesus
Christ are fearlessly
asserted, that the divine inspiration of the Gospel is fully recognized, that
the reality of the mystery
of the Immaculacy of the Virgin Mary is confessed, and the primacy of Peter,
the Prince of the
Apostles, is upheld and defended.[70]
Even though such a dramatic incidence has not occurred during His Dispensation,
as in the case of Moses, killing an Egyptian, or Jesus, being an allegedly
illegitimate child - linked by Bahá'u'lláh, suggesting yet
another archetypal plot - people would have reacted similarly as in the past.
This, at least, is Bahá'u'lláh's dire prediction.
[71]
5. Aspects of a spiritual paradigm - Intuitive and inspirational knowledge
Every Manifestation of God claims to be the channel for divine knowledge and
grace, and to propagate the Will of God for their day and age.
- Jesus:
- I do nothing of myself; but as my Father hath taught me, I speak these
things.[72]
I can of mine own self do nothing: as I hear, I judge: and my judgment is
just; because I seek not mine own will, but the will of the Father which hath
sent me.[73]
- Bahá'u'lláh:
- This is the Dayspring of Divine knowledge, if ye
be of them that understand, and the Dawning-place of God's commandments, if ye
be of those who comprehend.[74]
... the breezes of the All-Glorious were wafted over Me, and taught Me the
knowledge
of all that hath been. This thing is not from Me, but from One Who is Almighty
and
All-Knowing.[75]
Many Messengers of God stressed the fact that their wisdom and knowledge of the
world was not aquired by traditional means of studying. We know that many of
them were raised in simple conditions, having been exposed only to basic
education.
Bahá'u'lláh, in a letter to the Shah of Persia, assured him: "The
learning current amongst men I studied not; their schools I entered not. Ask
of the city wherein I dwelt, that thou mayest be well assured that I am not of
them who speak falsely."
[76]
Bahá'u'lláh alludes to a kind of "intuitive" knowledge, when He
relates the visit of a delegate of a congregation of clerics, "who, when
attaining Our presence, questioned Us concerning certain sciences, and whom We
answered by virtue of the knowledge We inherently possess."
[77]
On another occasion, He alludes again to this mysterious power, of having full
and direct access to any kind of information, He may wish to quote from or
refer to.
Thou knowest full well that We perused not the books which men possess and We
acquired not the
learning current amongst them, and yet whenever We desire to quote the sayings
of the learned and
of the wise, presently there will appear before the face of thy Lord in the
form of a tablet all that
which hath appeared in the world and is revealed in the Holy Books and
Scriptures.[78]
Similarly as Christ, the Báb only received basic education and was
trained in the profession of His family.
God beareth Me witness, I was not a man of learning, for I was trained as a
merchant.
In the year sixty[79] God graciously infused
my soul with the conclusive evidences and weighty
knowledge which characterize Him Who is the Testimony of God - may peace be
upon Him -
until finally in that year I proclaimed God's hidden Cause and unveiled its
well-guarded Pillar,
in such wise that no one could refute it.[80]
Such mystic ways of receiving knowledge only play a marginal role, according to
the worldview of secular historians. They would focus on the rational learning
process, and would examine the different schools of thought that the Prophet
had access to, and must have been influenced by.
In the case of the Báb, Amanat did a thorough research of all the
sources that the young merchant of Shiraz did know or might have known.
Concluding, he describes the learning process of the Báb as an ordinary,
"unsystematic" accumulation of knowledge, and is confident that this is what
the Báb meant by "unlearned knowledge." Amanat notices critically that
"weaknesses of presentation and the handicaps of a still maturing mind are
often detectable", but, taking into account the "brief time span" and the
"random opportunity" for the Báb "to study, memorize, and contemplate",
he admits that "his accomplishments are impressive".
[81]
The category of mystic intuition, of divinly-received knowledge, so
characteristic for the origin of religion, has no place in contemporary history
and social science. Back in 1941, Sorokin
emphatically emphasized the major role of this phenomenon for the progress of
civilization.
All great religions are founded by mystics endowed with the charismatic gift
of mystic experience...
And mystic experience, which reveals the truth of faith, has little, if
anything to do with ordinary
cognition attained through the sense organs or rational discourse. Without
mystic intuition, mankind
could hardly have possessed any religion worthy of the name. Since religion in
general, and the
world religions in particular, constitute one of the foremost achievements of
human culture, they
testify to the significance of the role played by intuition - especially by
mystic intuition - in the
history of human thought and civilization.[82]
Based on a crude and reductionistic, essentially materialistic view, of human
nature, however, human interactions and achievements are interpreted
accordingly, in a degrading manner.
A legion of contemporary psychoanalytical and 'scientific' biographers,
debunk and debase every
personage - no matter how exalted - of whom they treat. Everybody and
everything they touch -
God, as well as noble men and achievements - is mockingly interpreted as
something passive,
commonplace, abnormal or pathological, impelled by prosaic, egotistical and,
for the most part,
physiological drives...Piety is identified with ignorance and superstition;
moral integrity, with
hypocrisy; signal achievements, with mere luck; and so forth.[83]
6. Early childhood episodes in the lives of the Prophets
Archetypal expressions of intuitive wisdom and the question of
'embellishment'
If we take the notion of 'inherent knowledge' seriously, then it is not
surprising that this 'miraculous wisdom' should reveal itself already early on
in the lives of the Prophets. Such early childhood incidents, which can be
found in the various religious traditions, seem to be yet another archetypal
feature in the history of religion.
By the time Mirza Husayn-Ali [Bahá'u'lláh] was fourteen, Balyuzi
writes,
His rare understanding, His complete mastery of argument, and His
unparalleled powers of exposition
were remarked in all circles. Yet He was never assertive nor argumentative;
rather, always courteous
and patient. Only one thing aroused His ire, and that was any disrespectful
reference to the Messengers
of God and His Chosen Ones. Even then He would admonish the offender with
kindliness and calm.[84]
Balyuzi then relates several incidents of Bahá'u'lláh's youth,
which highlight His wisdom and insights.
In one of them, Bahá'u'lláh was visiting a distant relative, a
famous
mujtahid (Doctor of Law), who "had a thousand scholars of
divinity around him, whom he taught and, from time to time, presented with a
complex question to resolve."
[85] The
mujtahid had asked his students to explain an Islamic tradition, which
states that 'Fatimih is the best of women of this world, but for the one born
of Mary.' None of the scholars could provide a satisfactory answer, and
Bahá'u'lláh was asked to resolve this puzzle.
Bahá'u'lláh replied that the initial statement emphasized the
impossibility of its alternative, since there
could be no other woman comparable to Fatimih. It was like saying that a
certain monarch is the greatest
of the kings of this world, except for the one who comes down from heaven;
since no king has or will
come down from Heaven, the uniqueness of that one monarch is stressed.[86]
It is then reported how the
mujtahid kept silent, but scolded his
students later, disappointed, that an "unturbaned youth" could outdo them.
In the case of Jesus, only one such incident is reported in the Bible, where
the extraordinary wisdom of twelve-year old Jesus astonishes the teachers in
the Temple.
[87] Other such episodes,
especially the so-called Alpha-Beta-Logion, can be found in apocryphal
writings.
[88]
The central plot of the Alpha-Beta-Logion, contained in stories about the young
Jesus and various teachers in Nazareth, goes like that: "The master attempts to
teach Jesus the alphabet. But, he cannot get beyond the first two letters, for
Jesus demands that he explain the meaning of the letter Alpha. In most
versions, he himself then expounds the mystic meaning of the alphabet."
[89]
Lambden compares and analyzes the similarities between these stories, adapted
versions in Islamic sources, and various accounts of the Báb's first day
in school. The parallels are indeed remarkable, and so he concludes that "[i]t
is doubtless these Muslim transformations of the Christian story that have
contributed to both the form and the content of the stories of the Báb's
first day at school."
[90]
The second reason, indicating "the fundamentally nonhistorical nature of these
stories",
[91] lies in their "discrepancies",
which Lambden observes. Since the existence of these 'discrepancies' play a
major role in Lambden's argument, it is necessary to take a close look at the
four narratives in question.
[92]
The first two narratives are both attributed to the Báb's teacher, a
certain Shaykh Abid. They are indeed only "loosely parallel", as Lambden
observes. However, the second report seems to describe the events of "one day"
at school, not the "first day". This could be deduced from the Báb's
uncle reaction, to whose shop the bewildered teacher brings the child, and who
rebukes his nephew "sternly", because He did not follow his instructions, to be
silent, and listen attentively, as all the other pupils would do.
Such a 'stern rebuke' suggests a series of similar episodes, rather than a
one-time event. And indeed, such incidents happened more often than once, as
the teacher himself testifies. "No discipline could repress the flow of His
intuitive knowledge. Day after day He continued to manifest such remarkable
evidences of superhuman wisdom as I am powerless to recount."
[93]
We can therefore exclude the second account from the comparison. Its
'discrepancies' can be resolved as different details of another incident.
[94]
The third narrative is attributed to the assistant of the teacher, and
describes the opening scene of the first day. The Báb's uncle had
accompanied his nephew to school, sat next to the teacher, and the Báb
was asked to recite a certain verse. Inspite of the teacher's persistence, the
Báb remained silent for a long time, until He finally challenges the
teacher with relating the verse ("He is the Opener, the All-Knowing") to
Himself. The teacher is understandably upset and threatens to punish him, the
uncle gives some kind advice and leaves.
The fourth narrative, related by a fellow pupil, describes the same opening
scene, during which the Báb remained silent for a prolonged time. Only
his two neighbours, at one point, could hear how the Báb recited quietly
a couplet from Hafez, which obviously refers to His own situation, feeling like
a bird, entrapped in the "snare" of the narrow earthly sphere.
[95]
"That is your answer", the Báb had told his neighbour.
[96]97 We don't know the question to this answer,
but
it might have been the same as the teacher's one, wondering why the Báb
would not comply with his request to recite certain verses. Captured birds
don't sing.
With some good will, we can reconcile the third and the fourth account, arguing
that they may have taken place synchronously. Two different perspectives are
presented - the one of the teacher (and his assistant), being faced with the
Báb's silence - and the one of the fellow pupils, overhearing the
Báb's lowly muttered couplet.
We could also integrate the first account into the first day scenario, since it
took place later during the day (the story opens with the teacher returning
from some business, and overhearing the Báb reciting the Quran).
These observations do not devalue Lambden's point - that there is often an
element of embellishment and historical inaccuracy in such anecdotes.
[98] And I completely agree with his concluding
remarks, which clearly aim at reconciling a religious with an academic
perspective.
That certain narratives in well-known Bábí-Bahá'í
sources can be shown to be essentially legendary
or meta-historical does not mean that they become less meaningful for the
Bahá'í believer. They may,
in fact, become more meaningful, and less historically problematic. The modern
scholarly recognition
that the Gospels are not exactly concrete historical narratives does not make
them spiritually meaningless
for the mature Christian believer.99
This reasoning resembles very much the approach 'Abdu'l-Bahá took
towards the Bible, with regards to its textual and historical inaccuracies. He
regarded them as being secondary as opposed to the primary spiritual meaning
they convey.
When Abdu'l-Bahá states we believe what is in the Bible, He means in
substance. Not that we believe
every word of it to be taken literally or that every word is the authentic
saying of the Prophet.[100]
In one of His Tablets 'Abdu'l-Bahá refers to this [the Ishmael/Isaac]
discrepancy, and explains that, from
a spiritual point of view, it is irrelevant which son was involved. The
essential part of the story is that
Abraham was willing to obey God's command to sacrifice His son. Thus, although
the account in the Torah
is inaccurate in detail, it is true in substance.
[101]
This is a classic example of what is called
theologumenon in Christian
theology. That term refers to any subject, which does not address a normative
interpretation of truth, and cannot be verified historically, either. The
dispute of Jesus' birthplace (Bethlehem vs. Nazareth) would be another such
theologumenon.[102]
Outlook
Traditionally, hagiography has always been concerned with the spiritual message
of a story, paying little attention to historic accuracy. And so it is not
surprising, to find many details, both in the Old and New Testament, which are
inaccurate and contradictory. The attempts of theologians, motivated by a
literal
understanding of the Bible, to 'explain' and reconcile such inconsistencies,
have often created more contradictions, which then later scholars tried to
solve, and so forth.
[103]
Modern historical accounts, on the other hand, are often obsessed with details,
and completely disregard the 'essential part of the story'. To balance these
two aspects, to reconcile these two polarities, will be one of the challenges
for a new scientific-religious synthesis.
[104] The development, the conditions, and implications of
such a synthesis are currently much debated.
[105]
Only the future will show how "bottom-up science" and "top-down religion"
[106], or, as far as history is concerned, a
spiritual and critical-historical perspective, will be satisfactorily
integrated.
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Footnotes
[1] see note 15.
[2] A spiral concept combines the cyclical
notion of history repeating itself with the linear model of history
ever-advancing, in the sense that recurrent themes happen on a higher, more
complex level.
[3] Bahíyyih Nakhjavání,
Asking Questions, pp. 126-33.
[4] The term "secular" is used interchangeably
with the term "materialistic", referring to a philosophy, which excludes or
ignores spiritual concepts, as are mentioned above.
[5] Shoghi Effendi, after describing the fate of
the rulers, who received (and largely chose to ignore) messages of
Bahá'u'lláh, provides further examples of divine intervention:
"The conversion of the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies, as well as the
Chinese empire, into republics; the strange fate that has, more recently, been
pursuing the sovereigns of Holland, of Norway, of Greece, of Yugoslavia and of
Albania now living in exile; the virtual abdication of the authority exercised
by the kings of Denmark, of Belgium, of Bulgaria, of Rumania and of Italy; the
apprehension with which their fellow sovereigns must be viewing the convulsions
that have seized so many thrones; the shame and acts of violence which, in some
instances, have darkened the annals of the reigns of certain monarchs in both
the East and the West, and still more recently the sudden downfall of the
Founder of the newly established dynasty in Persia - these are yet further
instances of the infliction of the "Divine Chastisement" foreshadowed by
Bahá'u'lláh ... and show forth the divine reality of the arraignment pronounced
by Him against the rulers of the earth." (God Passes By, pp. 227-8).
[6] The Universal House of Justice has expressed
its concern over this development in several letters (see "A Compilation of
Bahá'í Writings on Scholarship", in The
Bahá'í Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 103-41.
[7] The term "Manifestation of God" is used
interchangeably with the term "founder of religion", and "Messenger of God", as
all of them manifested divine attributes and proclaimed the Divine Will
(logos) for their respective age.
[8] Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings,
pp. 145-6.
[9] Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and
Renewal, p. 198.
[10] Ibid., p. 174.
[11] Juan Cole, Modernity and the
Millenium, p. 178.
[12] The underlying premise of aquired vs.
intuitive and inspirational knowledge will be discussed later.
[13] Stephen Lambden, "An Episode in the
Childhood of the Báb", in Peter Smith, ed., Studies in
Bábí & Bahá'í History: In Iran. Vol.
3, p. 20.
[14] This point will be discussed later in
more detail.
[15] The Universal House of Justice, quoted in
"A Compilation of Bahá'í Writings on Scholarship", in The
Bahá'í Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 138.
[16] Ibid., p. 139.
[17] The terms "integral", "holistic", and
"spiritual paradigm" are used interchangeably throughout this paper. Many thinkers have analyzed the "crisis of our
age"(Sorokin), the "turning point" (Capra) towards a New Age, which will be
characterized by globalisation (from universal currency to universal ethics),
and by a shift of consciousness. This social and spiritual evolution will
integrate the polar view of science and religion (and other polarities) into a
holistic framework.
[18] Shoghi Effendi, Dawn of a New Day,
p. 201.For the concept of 'return', see Bahá'u'lláh,
Kitab-i-Iqan, pp. 148-198; Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh,
pp. 183-7; 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, chapters 33
(The 'Return' spoken of by the Prophets) and 81
(Reincarnation).
[19] The eighteen disciples represent "the
fourteen Infallibles - the Prophet Muhammad, the twelve Imams, and Fatima -
plus the four Archangels." Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal, p. 191.
[20] Bahá'u'lláh,
Kitab-i-Iqan, p. 159.
[21] Ibid., p. 151.
[22] Peter Smith, The Bábí
and Bahá'í Religions, p. 43.
[23] Bahíyyih Nakhjavání,
Asking Questions, p. 125.
[24]
In the case of the 'pattern' of sacrifice, Shoghi Effendi puts the death of
Bahá'u'lláh's son, Mirza Mihdi, in the same rank with " those
great acts of atonement associated with Abraham's intended sacrifice of His
son, with the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and the martyrdom of the Imam Husayn"
(God Passes By, p. 188). On the other hand, Bahá'u'lláh's
own life, full of sufferings, has a similar redemptive function as the
crucification of Christ. " Whoso will reflect upon the tribulations We have
suffered, his soul will assuredly melt away with sorrow. . . . We have
sustained the weight of all calamities to sanctify you from all earthly
corruption, and ye are yet indifferent." (Gleanings, p. 307).That a
sacrificial life can be equated with a martyr's death, is shown in the fact,
that Shoghi Effendi designated several distinguished Bahá'ís as
'martyrs', although they all died a natural death. (See Messages to
America pp. 3; 39-40; Light of Divine Guidance Vol.1, p. 263).
[25]
Moojan Momen, "Bahá'u'lláh's prophetology: archetypal patterns
in the lives of the founders of world religions", in The
Bahá'í Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 1 (1995), pp. 51-63.
[26] Shoghi Effendi provides many of these
examples in God Passes By. He compares and links the various images of
the 'initiatory event' (p. 101), and of the eschatological expectations (p.
94). He talks about internal opposition (and broadens the concept of
'Antichrist' (p. 164), and external opposition (pp. 121, 174). He also provides
a condensed and compelling comparison of the ministry and sacrifice of Christ
and the Báb, "a parallel which no student of comparative religion can
fail to perceive or ignore." (pp. 56-57).
[27] Momen, p. 60.
[28] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.
75.
[29] Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í
Administration, p. 189.
[30] Susan Maneck, Tahirih: A Religious
Paradigm of Womanhood, in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, Vol. 2,
Number 2, p. 40.
[31] Shoghi Effendi. God Passes By, pp.
32-33.
[32] Amanat Resurrection and Renewal,
p. 305, quoted by Maneck, Tahirih, p. 44.
[33] H. Noghabai. Tahirih, p. 60,
quoted by Maneck, Tahirih, p. 46.
34" 'The Persian Joan of Arc, the leader of emancipation for women
of the Orient ...' thus was she acclaimed by a noted playwright whom Sarah
Bernhardt had specifically requested to write a dramatized version of her
life." Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 76.
[35] Maneck lists as examples Tahirih's
leadership with the Shaykhi community of Karbala, and the scene disturbing
Quddus' devotions. She suspects that "the tendency of Bahá'ís to
minimize the militant aspects of the Bábí religion in keeping
with their present-day political quietism" may be partly responsible for this
(p. 52).
[36] 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Promulgation of
Universal Peace, pp. 174-5.
[37] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, pp. 74-5.
[38] However, her link to these women is
clearly established. The statement above seems to have provided the reference
for Shoghi Effendi, when he writes about Tahirih: "Little wonder that
Abdu'l-Bahá should have joined her name to those of Sarah, of Asiyih, of the
Virgin Mary and of Fatimih, who, in the course of successive Dispensations,
have towered, by reason of their intrinsic merits and unique position, above
the rank and file of their sex." Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.
75.Later on, Bahiyyih Khanum, 'Abdu'l-Bahá's sister is included for the
Bahá'í Era (p. 347). (ctd.) I regard this list as being
descriptive rather than dogmatic-exclusive. It would make little sense to argue
that Bahiyyih Khanum enjoys a higher position than, for example, Navvab, the
wife of Bahá'u'lláh, or that Mary Magdalene (included in
'Abdu'l-Bahá's list) plays a less important role in supporting the Cause
of Christ than Jesus' mother. In other words, the superlative description of
the women mentioned above still leaves room for other central female figures
whose characteristics may indeed complement each other.
[39] For Christian perspectives on Mary
Magdalene, see below (pp. 10-11).
[40] In four of his talks in America (not
counting the statement above), 'Abdu'l-Bahá referred to Mary Magdalene
(Promulgation, pp. 134, 282, 395, 421). In his writings (as far as they
are available in English), we find four more references (Selections, pp.
105, 123; Tablets of the Divine Plan, p. 40; Crisis and Victory,
p. 5).
[41] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, p. 134.
[42] Ibid., p. 134.
[43] Ibid., p. 135.
[44] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Crisis and
Victory, p. 5.
[45] 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation of
Universal Peace, pp. 282-3.
[46] Judith Goldstein, "Interwoven Identities:
Religious Communities in Yazd, Iran." Diss. Princeton University, 1978, p.
227.Quoted by Maneck, Tahirih, p. 52.
[47] Ludger Schenke, Die Urgemeinde,
pp. 13-18.
[48] 1 Cor. 15:3-8.
[49] Mark and Matthew only mention the flight
of the disciples from the scene of Jesus' imprisonment, i.e., the Garden of
Gethsemane, at the foot of the Mount of Olives. They may just as well have fled
into Jerusalem and remained in hiding there (as Luke and John suggest).
[50] Heinrich Kraft, Die Entstehung des
Christentums, p. 207 (my translation).
[51] See Acts 1:4, where Jesus "commanded them
that they should not depart from Jerusalem."
[52] Hans Conzelmann, Geschichte des
Urchristentums, p. 29 (my translation).
[53] Edward Schillebeeckx, Jesus. Die
Geschichte von einem Lebenden, pp. 305-6 (my translation).
[54] Ibid., p. 306 (my translation).
[55] See, for example, Kitab-i-Iqan,
pp. 62-3, for Bahá'u'lláh's discourse on the symbolic and
material meaning of "stars".
[56] Such a myth existed in Egypt, Babylon,
India, Persia, and Greece. Especially the religion of Isis offers striking
parallels to Christianity. Isis, the 'virgin mother' of Horus, was revered as
'mother of God' (gr.:'theotokos'). Origines, a third century Egyptian (!)
theologian, was the first who claimed this title for the mother of Christ. This
designation became popular throughout the Christian Empire, until it was
officially sanctioned at the Council of Ephesus (431). Little wonder, that many
scholars have suggested a direct influence. (For further details, see Deschner,
Abermals kraehte der Hahn, pp. 360-372.)
[57] See Quran, Surah 19;
Bahá'u'lláh, Kitab-i-Iqan, pp. 56-57; 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Some Answered Questions, chapter 17.
[58] Bahá'u'lláh,
Kitab-i-Iqan, p. 57. Bahá'u'lláh likens the severity and
function of this 'grievous test' to the incident, when Moses killed an
Egyptian.
[59] Ibid., p. 56.
[60] Matthew 1:19.
[61] It can only be concluded by implication,
that Joseph accepted legal fatherhood for Jesus. Otherwise, Mary would have
been liable to be put to death (by stoning), according to the Jewish Law
concerning adultery. To take this legal statement as an admission of his guilt
(of having been the illegitimate father), as some scholars have done, remains
speculation.
[62] In public, Mary referred to Joseph as
Jesus' father (see Luke 2:48). During the ministry of Christ, i.e., 30 years
later, this issue was not being raised by any of Christ's opponents, in order
to refute His message. On the contrary, Joseph was commonly perceived to be
Jesus' father (see Matthew 13:55, John 6:42, Luke 3:23, 4:22).
[63] The Syrian version of the Gospel,
rediscovered only several decades ago.
[64] In the genealogy of Jesus, according to
Matthew 1:16. This has been identified as "misunderstanding", based on
translation, but it could equally had reflected the belief of the early Syrian
Christians. Likewise, Judeo-Christians rejected the belief in a virgin birth
until the third century.
[65] The different concepts of the nature of
Christ will be discussed in a subsequent paper (chapter).
[66]
"What science calls a virgin birth we do not associate with that of Jesus
Christ, which we believe to have been a miracle and a sign of His Prophethood.
In this matter we are in entire agreement with the most orthodox church views."
Shoghi Effendi, High Endeavors, p. 70.
[67]
This refers to the British edition; the first US edition was published in
1918.
[68] From a letter of the Guardian to an
individual believer, October 1, 1935: Canadian Bahá'í News, February 1968, p.
11, quoted in in Lights of Guidance, p. 491, cit. 1641.
[69]
From a letter dated February 27, 1938 written on behalf of the Guardian to an
individual believer, quoted in Lights of Guidance, p. 490, cit. 1638.
[70] Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is
Come, p. 109. Further letters can be found in the same section of Lights
of Guidance, where the two previous quotes come from.
[71]
"And now, take heed, O brother! If such things be revealed in this
Dispensation, and such incidents come to pass, at the present time, what would
the people do? I swear by Him Who is the true Educator of mankind and the
Revealer of the Word of God that the people would instantly and unquestionably
pronounce Him an infidel and would sentence Him to death... Were a myriad
voices to be raised, no ear would listen if We said that upon a fatherless
Child hath been conferred the mission of Prophethood, or that a murderer hath
brought from the flame of the burning Bush the message of "Verily, verily, I am
God!" Bahá'u'lláh, Kitab-i-Iqan, p. 58.
[72] John 8:28.
[73] John 5:30. See also John 14:24, 15:15
a.o.
[74] Bahá'u'lláh,
Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 87.
[75] Bahá'u'lláh, Epistle to
the Son of the Wolf, p. 11.
[76] Ibid.
[77] Bahá'u'lláh,
Gleanings, p. 131.
[78] Bahá'u'lláh, Tablets of
Bahá'u'lláh, p. 149.
[79] 1260 A.H., i.e., 1844 C.E.
[80] Báb, Selections from the
Báb, p. 12.
[81] Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and
Renewal, p. 146.
[82] Sorokin, The Crisis of OurAge, p.
92.
[83] Ibid., p. 100.
[84] H. M. Balyuzi,
Bahá'u'lláh, the King of Glory, p. 21.
[85] Ibid., p. 21.
[86] Ibid., p. 22.
[87] Luke 2:41-50.
[88] Most prominently, in the Infancy
Gospel of Thomas.
[89] Brian McNeil, quoted by Stephen Lambden,
"An Episode in the Childhood of the Báb." In Peter Smith, ed.,
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History: In Iran. Vol.
3, pp. 12-3.
[90] Ibid., p. 13.
[91] Ibid., p. 8.
[92] For reasons of brevity, only a condensed
version and the conclusion of a textual analysis can be provided here.
[93] Ibid., p. 4 (see also Nabíl's
Narrative, p. 52).
[94]
According to the first report, the teacher had delivered the Báb at
home, at His grandmother's. Lambden explains this 'discrepancy' with the
"confusion surrounding the date of the Báb's father's death and who
thereafter took care of him." (p. 18)
[95] "From the pinnacles of the Throne they
whistle down to thee; How is it that in this snare thou now entrapped be?"
[96]
Ibid., pp. 7-8.
[98] Lambden has undoubtedly knowledge of and
access to many more descriptions, which could prove their fundamental
incompatibility, and thus historical inaccuracy. Based on my reading of the
four accounts presented, the historical kernel of the Báb's first day in
school is still quite recognizable.
99 Ibid., n. 38, pp. 30-1.
[100] From a letter written on behalf of the
Guardian to an individual believer and cited on behalf of the Universal House
of Justice, March 13, 1986 in a letter to a believer, in Lights of
Guidance, p. 495.
[101] Universal House of Justice, from a
letter to an individual believer, July 19, 1981, quoted in Michael Sours,
Understanding Christian Beliefs, p. 56.
[102] See Schillebeeckx, Jesus, p.
656.
[103] The following example is also
illuminating in terms of 'reconstructing history', and concerns the
appariations of Christ. There are inconsistencies in terms of who saw Christ
first (see note 27), but also in terms of where He appeared to the apostles.
According to Mark and Matthew, in Galilee, according to Luke and John, in
Jerusalem (John 21 relates another apparition in Galilee, but it is commonly
accepted among Bible scholars, that this 'epilogue' is a later addition). In
Luke, the disciples are exhorted not to leave Jerusalem until they would be
"endued with power from on high" (Luke 24:49), which excludes an encounter in
Galilee. The attempts of 'reconstructing history' existed in inventing a locale
named 'Galilee' near Jerusalem, on the Mount of Olives - Galiläa auf
dem Ölberg (Hoffmann, 1896), Das Galiläa bei Jerusalem
(Resch, 1910) - attempts, which were passed over in silence later on. Scholars
then contended, whether it was Mark or Luke, who made a mistake. (For more
details, see Karlheinz Deschner, Abermals krähte der Hahn, pp.
98-113.)
[104] For a discussion of such a synthesis,
see Robert Barry, A Theory of Almost Everything, pp. 111-23.See also
Mark Foster, "Suggestions for Bahá'í Hermeneutics". Foster builds
on Stephen Jay Gould's NOMA (non-overlapping magistera) principle, and argues
that religion and science, "though complementary, are not really separate." He
explores the interdependencies of a "Structural Dialectics Paradigm", based on
the Bahá'í principle of "Unity in Diversity".
[105] For discussions among
Bahá'í scholars, see various recent contributions (June/July
1999) on Bahá'í-Studies List (accessible on the Internet at
http://www.escribe.com/religion/bahaist).
[106] Foster, "Suggestions for
Bahá'í Hermeneutics", p. 4.
[+CHAPTER3]
Son of man and Son of
God - Concepts of Christologies in the New Testament
In the Gospels we find different titles that were attributed to Jesus.
He preferably spoke of himself as the
Son of man (Hebr.
ben adam),
he was addressed as "Teacher" (Hebr.
rabbi), and revered as
Son of
David,
Son of God, Lord (Hebr.
mar, Gr.
kyrios), the
Word (Gr.
logos), the Saviour, and the Messiah (Hebr.
masiah, Gr.
christós). Each of these designations was in fact more than just a
title, they revealed certain perspectives, understandings, expectations and
beliefs people had, and they could in a sense be regarded as seeds of various
Christological concepts. In this chapter, we will focus on the designations
Son of man and
Son of God and examine their different
meanings.
[1]
Son of Man
This is the title that, according to the Gospels, Jesus more or less
consistently used for himself. This title is the one most explored during the
last hundred years of biblical scholarship. It has different layers of meaning
and so it is not surprising that scholars have come to different
conclusions.
[2]
Some scholars have argued that
Son of man is no title at all. It
had been used in an indefinite sense, without concrete expectations, simply
meaning "I" (Vermes), "someone" (Bauckham), or "mortal one" (Fitzmeyer). That
Son of man has been used interchangably with "I" in the Gospels can be
detected in several places.
[3] However, to assume
that this exhausts the meaning of the term is a somewhat minimalist position, as
we will see.
It is also self-evident that this term denotes the human station of
Jesus. He was the 'son of humanity'
[4], so to
speak, and was fully involved in this earthly life. He showed signs of physical
exhaustion (John 4:6), of strong emotions (John 11:33-5), and was bound to
suffer and die (Matt. 17:22-3). In the apocryphal Epistle of Barnabas, the
generic meaning is clearly intended, when Jesus' human station is juxtaposed
with his divine nature: "See again Jesus, not as son of man, but as Son of God,
but manifested in a type of the flesh" (Barnabas 12:10).
On the other hand, this designation is linked to Jewish messianic
expectations, most prominently formulated in the apocalypse of Daniel. If
understood in such a context, the self-reference includes an eschatologic aspect
as well.
I saw in the night visions, and, behold, one like the Son of man came
with the clouds of heaven,
and came to the Ancient of days, and they brought him near before him.
And there was given him
dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and
languages, should serve him:
his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and
his kingdom that which
shall not be destroyed (Dan. 7:13-14).
Daniel's use of a simile ("one like the Son of man") is quite telling.
The two dimensions, the human and the messianic one, seem to be merged. The
future messiah will appear in a human form, but he is so much more. In the
discourse on his return, Christ referred explicitely to Daniel (Matt. 24:15) and
alluded to his apocalypse several times, including the passage cited
above:
Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun be
darkened, and the moon shall not
give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of
the heavens shall be shaken:
And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and then
shall all the tribes of the earth
mourn, and they shall see the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven
with power and great glory
(Matt. 24:29-30).
A messianic use of the term
Son of Man can also be found in the
(Ethiopian) Book of Enoch, one of several apocalyptic texts circulating at the
time of Jesus' ministry.
[5]
And there I saw One who had a head of days, And his head was white
like wool, And with him
was another whose countenance had the appearance of a man, And his
face was full of
graciousness, like one of the angels. And I asked the angel who went
with me and showed me
all the secret things, concerning yonder Son of man, who he was, and
whence he was, (and) why
he went with the Chief of Days? And he answered and said unto me: This
is the Son of man to
whom belongs righteousness And righteousness dwells with him: And all
the treasures of that
which is hidden he reveals Because the Lord of spirits has chosen him
And whose cause before
the Lord of spirits triumphs by uprightness for
ever.
[6]
Enoch's vision bears striking parallels to Daniel's one. In both cases,
the human-like and yet angelic Messiah figure is situated next to God (called
the Ancient of Days, respectively the Chief of Days). He is depicted with great
glory, chosen to reveal the wisdom of God and establish an everlasting dominion.
Whether Jesus knew and alluded to apocryphal apocalypses such as Enoch's as
well, remains uncertain, but they are instructive in illustrating the prevalent
messianic expectations.
[7]
Jesus' self-references as being the
Son of Man certainly
reminded his Jewish audience of their rich apocalyptic heritage with its
messianic theme. David Flusser has even argued that "[t]he one like a man [the
Son of man] who sits upon the throne of God's glory, the sublime eschatological
judge, is the highest conception of the Redeemer ever developed by ancient
Judaism."
[8]
It is easy to see how Jesus' description of his return fitted the
apocalyptic messianic imagery of his Jewish audience. The challenge for them was
to come to terms with Jesus' own messianic claims, which could not, if
understood literally, be harmonized with their eschatological expectations. It
became a main apologetic task of early Christianity to remove the
"stumblingblock" and justify the apparent "foolishness" of a suffering and
crucified Messiah (1 Cor. 1:23).
But Jesus reminded his listeners that the Scriptures not only spoke of
the glorious station of the
Messiah, sitting on the throne of David. They also told of the servant
of God, a "man of sorrows",
"despised and rejected by men" (Isaiah
53:3)
[9], who sacrificed his life for mankind,
and through whose sacrifice his kingdom will be
raised.
[10] In merging the images of Isaiah's
suffering servant and Daniel's portrayal of the victorious
Son of man,
Jesus' use of this term reveals its depth and explains its
ambiguity.
Brad Young has rightly criticized the notion of scholars who opt
exclusively for either a generic or a messianic meaning of the term
Son of
Man. He suggests merging those two levels into "a complex combination of the
two previous meanings as in the passion predictions of Jesus." That would mean
that we regard Jesus "as a human being in his sufferings and death (first
meaning), and also he is more than an ordinary human being in his resurrection
and triumph (associated with second meaning)." He acknowledges that the generic
meaning may sometimes be intended, but recommends that "the context of the
Gospels should be studied in order to determine if a deeper significance is
given to the name."
[11]
Unfortunately, Young falls short of his own advice, when he quotes
Matt. 12:32 as an example for a mere generic use of
ben
adam.
[12]
And whoever says a word against the Son of man will be forgiven;
but whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven,
either in this age or in the age to come.
While it is certainly possible to understand
Son of man in a
generic sense in this passage, the deeper meaning that Young advocates to look
for may be lost. In analyzing the passage, Young notes "the beauty of strong
parallelism" and the "son of man" being "the antithesis of the Holy Spirit", the
latter often used as referring to God in Jewish tradition. According to this
reading, to say something evil against other human beings or to oppose them
strongly (connotations of the Hebrew idiom "to speak against") would be
forgiven, but not to turn against the Holy Spirit (God). However, when we
include verse 31 into our analysis, we see that this meaning is already
expressed there.
Wherefore I say unto you, All manner of sin and blasphemy shall be
forgiven unto men:
but the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not be forgiven unto
men.
And whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be
forgiven him:
but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven
him,
neither in this world, neither in the world to come.
The first line of verse 32 would thus only be a repetition of the one
in verse 31, and even a less emphatic one. From a stylistic and rhetoric point
of view, it seems more plausible to read the first line of verse 32 as a climax,
rather than a weak repetition. Even if one turns against the (messianic)
Son
of man, he would be forgiven, as long as this person does not oppose the
light of the Holy Spirit (God) itself. Following such an interpretation, Jesus
would make a distinction between himself (his specific mission), and the Holy
Spirit (God). While such a reading may be rejected with a trinitarian
concept in mind, it should be noted that Jesus on several occasions did
make such a distinction.
[13]
It is also interesting to note that Jesus mentions blasphemy apart from
"all manner of sin". To be blasphemous, is to show disrespect for God or
religious matters. The climax would then be that one, out of prejudice,
fanaticism, or ignorance, can show disrespect even for God's Messenger (not just
to secondary religious matters, such as sacred objects) and be forgiven, as long
as one does not turn against the Source of all good itself. Such an
interpretation is also confirmed from a Bahá´í point of view.
In the words of ´Abdu´l-Bahá, elucidating the biblical verse in
question:
The meaning is this: to remain far from the light-holder [i.e. the Son
of Man] does not entail everlasting
banishment, for one may become awakened and vigilant; but enmity toward
the light [i.e. the Holy Spirit]
is the cause of everlasting banishment, and for this there is no
remedy.
[14]
The implications of such an understanding can not be elaborated upon
here. Suffice it to say that they are far-reaching in terms of challenging an
exclusivist concept of salvation, and providing a broader basis for an
inclusivist or pluralist perspective for interfaith
dialogue.
[15]
Having extensively argued that Matthew 12:32 is an important reference
for the messianic rather than merely the human dimension, I would like to
propose that similar enriching insights could be gained, whenever we take the
messianic (as well as the moral and allegorical) aspect of the
Son of man
sayings (or incidents) into account.
[16] In
other words, it was always the Messiah speaking, with spiritual implications and
challenges, for those "who have ears to hear" (Mark 4:23).
Let us look briefly at one such instance, which is commonly understood
as a reference to Jesus' humanity (Matt. 8:19-20, Luke 9:58):
And a certain scribe came, and said unto him, Master, I will follow
thee whithersoever thou goest.
And Jesus saith unto him, The foxes have holes, and the birds of the
air have nests;
but the Son of man hath not where to lay his head.
Certainly this statement bears vivid testimony to the kind of life
Jesus led during the three years of his ministry. Several aspects contributing
to his homelessness can be identified in the reports of the Gospels. He had left
his temporary residence at Capernaum and any material comfort he might have had
behind, in order to preach throughout Galilee (Mark 1:38-39, Luke 10:1). As his
fame as inspired teacher and healer spread, crowds of people beleaguered him
everywhere he went (Mark 6:56). Often he was forced to retreat (John 6:15) but
could not for long remain in hiding (Mark 7:24). Many times his teachings
provoked opposition and he had to withdraw (John 8:59, 10:39), and at other
times he was rejected and no hospitality was shown towards him and his disciples
(Luke 9:52-56). It was after such an occasion that Jesus commented on
his homelessness.
[17]
Recognizing the context of being rejected and homelessness, it will be
instructive to view Jesus' fate in the light of the messianic 'Servant of God'
paradigm. As portrayed in Isaiah's songs, the Servant of God "is despised and
rejected of men" (Isaiah 53:3). This may at first glance seem contradictory to
the above-mentioned fact of people crowding around him. But the initial
enthusiasm of people seeking healing and miracles often turned into rejection
when challenged by Jesus' "hard sayings" (John 6:60), which also prompted many
of his followers to abandon him (John 6:66).
In a moving passage, alluding to this quote,
Bahá´u´lláh also views rejection and enmity as reasons
for Jesus' homelessness:
Reflect how Jesus, the Spirit of God, was, notwithstanding His extreme
meekness and perfect tender-
heartedness, treated by His enemies. So fierce was the opposition
which He, the Essence of Being and
Lord of the visible and invisible, had to face, that He had nowhere to
lay His head. He wandered
continually from place to place, deprived of a permanent
abode.
[18]
Following the classical (Christian) fourfold level of
interpretation
[19], I want to briefly look for
possible allegorical readings of this quote. In one sense, Jesus regarded the
Temple ("the House of God") as his true home (Matt. 21:13, Luke 2:49). Being
"homeless" then, might refer to the desecration of the Temple (Mark 11:17), or
his being continually harrassed by the priests, whenever he wanted to teach
there (Luke 19:47). In another sense, the "true home" of the spirit of Christ is
in the hearts of the believers. The lack of hospitality shown to him in the
Samaritan village would then be the outer image of people's inner reality,
refusing to let the spirit of Christ dwell in their hearts.
Bahá´u´lláh in the Hidden Words has repeatedly described
such a symbolic relationship:
O SON OF DUST! All that is in heaven and earth I have ordained for
thee, except the human heart,
which I have made the habitation of My beauty and glory; yet thou didst
give My home and dwelling
to another than Me; and whenever the manifestation of My holiness
sought His own abode, a stranger
found He there, and, homeless, hastened unto the sanctuary of the
Beloved. Notwithstanding I have
concealed thy secret and desired not thy
shame.
[20]
Here of course the allegorical and moral levels of interpretation
merge. And it is the latter one that I feel is the most relevant to investigate.
After all, Jesus' statement was given as response to a learned Jew who wanted to
become a disciple. Jesus wanted the scribe to be aware of the consequences of
such a decision. Jesus was not complaining about his own fate but indirectly
asking the man if he were prepared to give up his home and material comfort if
that is what was needed. Following Jesus' footprints calls for detachment and
spiritual strength, for the readiness to accept suffering and even martyrdom, in
order to gain eternal life:
And he that taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, is not worthy
of me.
He that findeth his life shall lose it: and he that loseth his life for
my sake shall find it (Matt. 10:38-39).
Luke and Matthew do not tell us how the scribe decided. But the
relevance of the moral level of interpretation is that it is not about the
historicity of the event, but about our own personal response. Moral
interpretation invites contemplation and a renewal of personal commitment. To
what extent are we prepared to follow the
Son of man?
The predominant use of the term
Son of man in the Gospels gives
way to the title
Son of God in the Pauline (and Apostolic) letters. Paul
has been often accused of having started the process of Christ's deification,
but it has been overlooked that Paul's usage of this term had eschatological
messianic connotations as well, as will be shown below. Furthermore, the
complementary use of both these titles can be gleaned from the Gospels
themselves.
Whenever people addressed Jesus as
Son of God, he never rejected
this title as unqualified but exhorted them not to disclose it. Several times
this happened during the process of healing obsessed people:
For he had healed many; insomuch that they pressed upon him for to
touch him, as many as had
plagues. And unclean spirits, when they saw him, fell down before him,
and cried, saying, Thou
art the Son of God. And he straitly charged them that they should not
make him known.
[21]
Similarly, Jesus exhorted his disciples not to disclose his station
prematurely (Mark 8:30; 9:9). This strategy of gradually unfolding his messianic
claim has been coined as "messianic secret". That the title
Son of God
was used and understood in this messianic context, will be discussed in more
detail below.
Son of God
This term is equally multi-faceted as the former one discussed. The
prevalent understanding adopted by the Christian churches is based on the
Johannine diction of the "only begotten Son" (John 1:18). Before dealing with
this statement and the doctrines that evolved from it, I would like to address
older meanings of this term as they were used and understood in Judaism.
In Christian polemics, the God of Israel has usually been depicted as a
God of wrath, as opposed to the God of love in the New Testament. Furthermore,
his remoteness and unaccessibility has been contrasted with the intimate
relationship that Jesus as the Son had with God, whom he called
abba
(Father). That this is a simplistic characterization and a polemic contrast can
be easily deduced from the Hebrew biblical texts.
God assures Moses of his help to liberate his people from the Egyptian
bondage and instructs him to proceed as follows:
And thou shalt say unto Pharaoh, Thus saith the LORD, Israel is my son,
even my firstborn:
And I say unto thee, Let my son
go,
that he may serve me: and if thou refuse to let him go,
behold, I will slay thy son, even thy firstborn (Ex.
4:22-23).
The image of the father-son relationship is carried on through the
fourty years of exodus in search
for the Promised Land. Whenever the Israelites got discouraged, Moses
would assure them of the
continuous help and assistance of God and remind them "that the LORD
thy God bare thee, as a man doth bear his son, in all the way that ye went,
until ye came into this place" (Deut. 1:31).
This theme is then greatly expanded by the prophets following Moses who
depicted God as Father figure for the people of Israel. Isaiah, in one passage
(Isaiah 63: 15-16) recalls how God has saved Israel in the past and implores him
to do so again, calling upon him as father:
Look down from heaven, and behold from the habitation of thy holiness
and of thy glory:
where is thy zeal and thy strength, the sounding of thy bowels and of
thy mercies toward me?
are they restrained? Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be
ignorant of us, and Israel
acknowledge us not: thou, O LORD, art our father, our redeemer; thy
name is from everlasting.
In Jeremiah (3:19-22) it is God speaking through the prophet's voice
who laments over the faithlessness of Israel and urges his "sons" to return.
"'I thought how I would set you among my sons, and give you a pleasant
land, a heritage most
beauteous of all nations. And I thought you would call me, My Father,
and would not turn from
following me. Surely, as a faithless wife leaves her husband, so have
you been faithless to me,
O house of Israel, says the LORD.'"
In this passage the image of God as the Father calling his children,
and as the husband grieving over his wife's faithlessness, are intertwined. The
latter image is often employed by Isaiah and Jeremiah and appears again in the
New Testament, when Jesus refers both to himself and the eschatological Christ
as the bridegroom (see Mark 2:19-20; Matt. 1:1-13). God's call (in the passage
above) does not remain unheard, the children repent and return (the topic is
taken up again by Christ in the parable about the prodigal son):
A voice on the bare heights is heard, the weeping and pleading of
Israel's sons,
because they have perverted their way, they have forgotten the LORD
their God.
"Return, O faithless sons, I will heal your faithlessness."
"Behold, we come to thee; for thou art the LORD our God."
So we can summarize that there has always been a love relationship
(characterized as parental or marital) between God and the people of Israel.
This relationship is characterized by alternate stages of closeness and
alienation, of loyalty and betrayal, of happiness and suffering, of rebellion
and return. The prophets have always been sent to renew the eternal Covenant and
to call the children back to the Father.
[22]
Unique as Christ's position is in many ways, it has also to be seen within this
framework of perpetual divine guidance, which is both specific (in the context
of Judaism) and universal.
As discussed above, we are all God's children but it is through our
love to God and following his laws that we deserve to be called as such.
Similarly, Christ declared that "Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be
called the children of God" (Matt. 5:9).
In a more specific sense, God has promised King David through the
prophet Natan that through his seed the kingdom of God will be raised and that
God will regard David's descendant as his own son:
And when thy days be fulfilled, and thou shalt sleep with thy fathers,
I will set up thy seed after thee,
which shall proceed out of thy bowels, and I will establish his
kingdom. He shall build an house for my
name, and I will stablish the throne of his kingdom for ever. I will be
his father, and he shall be my son.
If he commit iniquity, I will chasten him with the rod of men, and with
the stripes of the children of men:
But my mercy shall not depart away from him, as I took it from Saul,
whom I put away before thee. And thine
house and thy kingdom shall be established for ever before thee: thy
throne shall be established for ever.
[23]
This is the earliest reference that nourished the hope for a royal
Messiah to come and re-establish the kingdom of
Israel.
[24] Such hopes were eventually defeated
and subsequent prophets presented different perspectives of the Messiah-King
figure.
[25] However, at various times
throughout Jewish history these hopes were revived, and Jesus was equally faced
with such hopes and expectations (e.g., Matt. 21:9) and had to explain that his
kingdom was about spiritual transformation (e.g., Luke 17:20-21) as opposed to
rebel against the Romans. This of course was a radical redefinition of the
original concept as it was commonly understood, and a rejection of political
aspirations to establish a dynastic Monarchy again.
Nevertheless, it is important to realize that when Jesus was addressed
as
Son of God in the Gospels, it predominantly was done so in the context
of the messianic expectations outlined above. This is clearly shown in the
following dialogue where Jesus responds to the royal messianic expectations of
Nathanael, "an Israelite in whom is no guile" (John 1:47), with linking them to
Daniel's eschatological scheme:
Nathanael answered and saith unto him, Rabbi, thou art the Son of God;
thou art the King
of Israel.Jesus answered and said unto him, Because I said unto thee, I
saw thee under the
fig tree, believest thou? thou shalt see greater things than these. And
he saith unto him,
Verily, verily, I say unto you, Hereafter ye shall see heaven open, and
the angels of God
ascending and descending upon the Son of man (John
1:49-51).
The oldest text that preserved the Jewish messianic expectations is the
socalled "small messianic hymn" in Luke 1:32-35, with the angel Gabriel
foretelling the greatness of Christ:
He shall be great, and shall be called the Son of the Highest: and the
Lord God shall give
unto him the throne of his father David: And he shall reign over the
house of Jacob for ever;
and of his kingdom there shall be no end...that holy thing which shall
be born of thee
shall be called the Son of God.
When interrogated by the High Priests (Mark 14:61-62), Jesus not only
confirmed that he was the
Son of God (verse 61), but immediately linked this title to the
eschatological
Son of man concept
(verse 62), just as in the dialogue quoted above. The merging of the
messianic and eschatological
concepts happens also by combining the images of Ps. 110:1 ("Sit thou
at my right hand") with
Dan. 7:13 (coming "with the clouds of heaven") in verse 62
itself.
Again the high priest asked him, and said unto him, Art thou the
Christ, the Son of the Blessed?
And Jesus said, I am: and ye shall see the Son of man sitting on the
right hand of power,
and coming in the clouds of heaven.
Jesus confirms to be the Messiah and the
Son of God in speaking
of his eschatological function, in other words, he accepts and "interprets"
Messiahship as a primary (if not exclusive) reference to his future mission at
the time of his return (Gr.
parousia). The Gospel of Mark certainly
reflects the oldest messianic concept and it is interesting to see how Matthew
and Luke have rendered their accounts of this scene in a slightly different way,
extending the role of Jesus' Messiahship and Sonship to his earthly mission as
well.
[26]
Such an original (eschatological) understanding of Messiahship can
still be detected in the early tradition of the Hellenistic
Community.
[27] When Paul praises the
Thessalonian community for their exemplary belief and steadfastness, he goes on
to say that they
turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God; And to wait
for his Son from heaven,
whom he raised from the dead, even Jesus, which delivered us from the
wrath to come (1 Thess 1:9-10).
The coming "from heaven" and Jesus' role as redeemer (Gr.
soteros) from "the wrath to come"
allude to the apocalyptic Judgement Day. More importantly, as can be
seen in this passage, the designation
Son (of God) is not yet used as a
general title, but specifically to describe Jesus' eschatological
function.
Equally challenging as the understanding of "kingdom" was the
understanding of the relationship between God and his "adopted" son. The Gospel
of Mark starts with the baptism of Jesus, and for many early Christians this
constituted the event of God "adopting" Jesus as his son, showering his spirit
upon him to start his mission. God's affirmation, "Thou art my beloved Son, in
whom I am well pleased" (Mark 1:11) provides the basis for such a belief. It
links this act to the messianic adoption (Ps. 2:7) and to Isaiah's model of the
Servant of God (Is. 42:1). It is interesting to note that Paul's letter to the
community in Rome starts out with such an "adoptionist" description as
well:
Concerning his Son Jesus Christ our Lord, which was made of the seed of
David
according to the flesh; And declared to be the Son of God with power,
according
to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead (Rom.
1:3-4).
If taken to an extreme, this perspective would crystallize in a belief
that Jesus was an ordinary human being and his divinity rests solely on his
being "adopted" as
Son of God. Proponents of such a view have come to be
known as "Adoptionists" and their Christology proved influential until the third
century.
[28]
At the other end of the spectrum, equally one-sided, would be the
belief that the divine Sonship of Jesus implies his absolute divinity.
Proponents of this view were called "Modalists" because they regarded, in
trinitarian terms, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit only as different
appearances (L.
modi) of the one (undivided) God. Modalism was equally
influental during the early time of Christianity and even, as Deschner pointed
out, official Church doctrine during the reign of at least three consecutive
popes.
[29]
In order to understand how such a doctrine could have developed, we
have to analyze yet another Christological concept as it is expressed in the
Gospel of John.
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word
was God.
The same was in the beginning with God.
All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made
that was made.
In him was life; and the life was the light of men.
And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it
not...
That was the true Light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the
world...
And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, (and we beheld his
glory, the glory
as of the only begotten of the Father,) full of grace and truth...
No man hath seen God at any time; the only begotten Son, which is in
the bosom of the
Father, he hath declared him (John 1:1-5, 9,14, 18).
Here we encounter a radically different image of the
Son of God.
He is the embodiment of the Word (Gr.
logos), which is one with God,
pre-existent, the creator of the universe, and the universal source of guidance
and illumination. We find similar descriptions, in hymnal form, in some letters
of Paul (Phil. 2:6-11; Hebr. 1:3-4; Col. 1:15-20).
No other theologian has been more critized and misunderstood than Paul,
the 'Apostle to the Gentiles'. He has been accused of having changed the 'Faith
of Jesus' into 'Faith in Jesus'. "Pauline heresy", so Schonfield, "served as the
basis for Christian orthodoxy, and the legitimate Church [i.e., Jewish
Christianity] was outlawed as heretical".
[30]
Similarly Schoeps, who regards the Ebionites (see note 27) as "Conservatives who
could not go along with the Pauline-cum-Hellenistic
elaborations".
[31]
A great deal of the criticism is directed against the 'deification' of
Christ, of changing the messianic title
Son of God into "an ontological
reality".
[32] It seems unfair that Paul gets
all the blame, when John is equally "guilty" of subscribing to such a cosmology.
Furthermore, many scholars agree that the hymns mentioned above are actually
pre-Pauline and reflect the thinking and belief of the Hellenistic
Judaeo-Christian community.
[33]
In one of these hymns, the station and mission of Jesus is summarized
thus:
Christ Jesus: Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to
be equal with God:
But made himself of no reputation, and took upon him the form of a
servant, and was made
in the likeness of men: And being found in fashion as a man, he humbled
himself, and became
obedient unto death, even the death of the cross. Wherefore God also
hath highly exalted him,
and given him a name which is above every name: That at the name of
Jesus every knee should
bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the
earth; And that every tongue
should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the
Father (Phil. 2:6-11).
The theme of these hymns is the myth of pre-existent Wisdom
(Gr.
sophia) transferred to Jesus. In the form of a cosmic drama (Gr.
dromenon), the various scenes of
pre-existence, descent, ascent
(return), and exaltation are applied to the life of Jesus. The parallels
between the Hellenistic-Jewish concept of
sophia and the
logos or
Wisdom Christology of John (and Paul) are indeed striking.
Sophia is pre-existent and involved with the creation of the
cosmos (Ps. 33:6; Prov. 8:22-29). She
[34] is
pictured as God's beloved child ("Then I was by him, as one brought up with him:
and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him" [Prov.
8:30].)
[35]. She is being sent down to earth
to reveal the will of God (Prov. 8:32-36), and returning unto Him after having
fulfilled her mission (Is. 55:
10 -11). She is the light of guidance (Prov. 4:18; 6:23; Ps. 119:105),
offering heavenly food (Prov. 9:1-6; Sir. 15:3; cf. with John 6:35). So it is
not surprising that from very early on Jesus has been identified as perfect
expression of
sophia.
[36] Rather than
assuming "pagan" influences, we can attest that Wisdom Christology has strong
roots in Jewish Wisdom literature and is complementary with (not contradicting)
the other Christological concepts.
We should not overlook that references and allusions to the complex of
Wisdom literature can also be detected in the Synoptic
Gospels.
[37]
This is not to deny that Hellenistic cosmology and terminology shaped
the Greek speaking Jewish community in the Diaspora. But the notion that due to
this
Zeitgeist (whether through Paul or anyone else) the "true" character
of Christianity had been changed and perverted is not correct and
cannot remain unchallenged. The Hellenistic Jews, as Schillebeeckx
pointed out, who had moved to Jerusalem out of religious reasons, were deeply
imbued with Biblical spirituality and more authentically "Jewish" than the
established orthodoxy. Converted to Christianity, these Diaspora Jews proved to
be the most active members of the
community.
[38] Wisdom Christology then is one
of the strands of pluralist concepts that have been developed and intertwined in
the Judaeo-Christian community but it eventually became the dominant (orthodox)
view, providing the basis for the Nicaean creed.
When challenged from both Jewish and (pagan) Greek side, how the
reverence of Jesus (as
expressed in the developing liturgy) could be reconciled with their
claimed Monotheism, the early
Christians had to resort to sometimes complicated apologies. Either
they would play down the divinity of Jesus as it was confessed in the communal
prayer or they felt obliged to deny any difference between God and Jesus, in
order to avoid "Di-Theism". The former strategy led to "Adoptionism" mentioned
above, or " dynamic Monarchianism", as it is also referred
to.
[39] The latter led to "Modalism" (or
"modalistic Monarchianism"), in which Jesus and God are seen as alternate
expressions of one and the same reality. This latter view gained more popularity
because it provided the theological justification for the growing reverence for
Christ. The tension between Jesus' humanity and divinity and the attempts to
explain the "inexplicable" have characterized the Christological discussions
ever since.
[40]
While the extreme variants of "Monarchianism" represented only minority
views, most theologians of the second and third century would concede that
Christ had a divine nature/essence (Gr.
hypostasis), which was
subordinate to God's essence. It is often said that Arius caused a major schism
because of his extreme view of Christ being subordinate to the Father (and the
logos to the Son). What is often overlooked or downplayed, is that
subordinate Christology was the common Church doctrine during the second and
third century. Proponents of subordinate Christology had strong Scriptural
evidence for their claims. Even in the Gospel of John, which presented (in
contrast to the synoptic Gospels) Christ as pre-existent incarnation of the
logos, Christ attested to the superiority of the Father (see John 14:28).
For Paul, God was the head of Christ, just as Christ was the head of man (1 Cor.
1:3). Tertullian declared that "there was a time (before creation) when God had
no Son".
Based on Jesus' statement that even he does not know the hour of his
return (Mark 13:32), Church teacher Irenaeus declared that the Father stands
above all and is also greater than the Son. Origines, the greatest theologian of
the first three centuries, defended the transcendency of God by claiming that
the "immutable God" is not affected by experiences in soul or body
of the human Christ.
When in the fourth century, in Alexandria, Arius propagated his views,
he could refer to a long and
well established tradition. Not surprising, his views were quite
popular and threatened the authority of his Bishop Alexander who had him
expelled to Antiochia. There, Arius sided with the followers of Origines who
likewise championed a subordinate position of Christ. Prominent Christians such
as Bishop Euseb of Caesarea (the Church historian) or Bishop Euseb of Nikodemia
embraced Arius' views. The dispute between Antiochia and Alexandria soon
threatened to divide the whole Eastern
Church.
[41]
Emperor Constantine tried unsuccessfully to mediate between the two
rivalling parties and finally summoned in 325 C.E. an ecumenical council (a
universal gathering of all bishops) in his summer residence of Nicaea.
Constantine was less concerned about the theological side of the dispute but
rather to foster the political stability in his empire by the means of a uniting
(and united) Christian belief. Arius' claims were refuted and a creed, based on
the Syrian-Palestinensian credo with certain additions, was formulated. The
additions were necessary because the original creed was so general that Arius'
views could fit into it as well. The key passage of the creed (with the
additions in italics)
[42] reads as such:
[Christ is] begotten as the first-born
out of the essence of the Father,
God from God, Light from Light,
true God from true God, begotten not created,
of one (the same) essence with the Father.
The catchword that was introduced to refute Arius' theology was the one
of the "same essence" (Gr
. homousios). Whether Constantine imposed this
term on the council, as Deschner claims (p. 395), or it repesented the common
consensus of the majority of the Bishops, remains unclear. But one can safely
say that the will and theological orientation of the Emperors of that epoch
determined, which Church doctrine was "right" or
"heretical".
[43]
The new concept of
homousios was too ambiguous and unreflected
and gave rise to further disputes among the Christian clergy. Many theologians
rejected the idea of God's essence being the same as Christ's and preferred to
speak of the similarity (Gr.
homoeios) of the essences. A compromise was
agreed upon at the Synod of Alexandria (362 C.E.), which allowed Christians to
speak of three natures (
hypostasis) but also of one, when referring
solely to God.
Meanwhile, the Cappadocian theologians Basilius, Gregor of Nazianz and
Gregor of Nyssa developed the concept of the Trinity (one God in three persons).
This doctrine, which elevated the Holy Spirit as being of the same essence as
the Father and the Son, was officially accepted at the Second Council of
Constantinople (381 C.E.). The similarity to ancient Greek and Egyptian
religious concepts has not gone unnoticed and many scholars hold such influences
responsible for
the development of this doctrine.
[44]
The famous German theologian Adolf von Harnack has analyzed
Jewish and Hellenistic concepts, which have provided "an abundance of
mythologies and
meanings" for the development of dogmatic theology. The equally
prominent Protestant theologian Rudolf Bultmann writes about the influence of
Gnostic mythology.
[45] Deschner even suggested
that the special interest of the three Cappadocian theologians in developing the
doctrine of Trinity could be explained by the popularity of pagan Trinities in
that region.
[46] While it might have been the
case that these theologians were directly influenced by pagan concepts, it seems
more likely that they rather tried to present Christianity in such a way that it
appealed to their countrymen.
The Bible itself provides hardly any evidence for the Trinitarian
concept. The combination God, Christ and the Angels can be found many
times
[47], which might have prompted Justin
(around 150) to speak even of the Quaternity of God-Father, Son, the army of
Angels, and the Holy Spirit. But the combination of Father, Son and Holy Spirit
(Holy Ghost) is so rare that one of the most famous New Testament interpolations
was added, probably sometime during the fourth century, the socalled "Johannine
Comma". In the first letter of John, the statement "And there are three that
bear witness in earth, the Spirit, and the water, and the blood: and these three
agree in one" (1 John 5:8) lent itself to an addition, which found its way into
various Codices: "For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father,
the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one" (1 John
5:7).
Most scholars likewise agree that Jesus' command, "Go ye therefore, and
teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost" (Matt. 28:19) is a later interpolation.
The term "Holy Ghost" is most often used for the power of inspiration,
which had inspired the prophets and ordinary people
alike.
[48] Sometimes it refers to the
indwelling spirit of humans.
[49]
It is the force, which begot Jesus (Matt. 1:18; 20) and led him into
the wilderness after his baptism (Luke 4:1). Blasphemy against it can never be
forgiven, but any other blasphemy, even against Jesus, could (Luke 12:10). It is
also equated with the Comforter (Gr.
paraklet) that Jesus foretold (John
14:26).
[50]
It is evident that not all of these concepts can be easily reconciled
with the doctrine of Trinity.
In order to find additional support for this doctrine, theologians have
sometimes stretched the interpretation of certain verses. Gregor of Nyssa for
instance interpreted Ps. 33:6, "By the word of the LORD were the heavens made;
and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth" in such wise that the
"word" refers to Jesus, and the "breath" to the Holy Ghost.
Anti-Nicaean sentiments have never died out though, and in the
sixteenth century, several critics have voiced their reservations. In 1553 C.E.,
in his polemics "Restoration of Christianity", the Spaniard Michael Servet
recapitulated all the major arguments against the doctrine of Trinity and,
refusing to recant, was burned at the stake the same year in Geneva. Georg
Biandrata and Fausto Sozzini, arguing from different perspectives, reject the
doctrine of Trinity as well.
[51] Within
Protestantism, the Unitarian congregation does not accept Trinity. Harnack,
alluding to Augustin's maxim "credo quia absurdum esse" ("I believe because it
is absurd"), observes not without irony that the most paradox doctrines were
appreciated most, because they seem to guarantee that divine wisdom is being
offered, as opposed to merely human and unreliable thinking.
Be that as it is, it remains a fact that for all the major Christian
denominations this dogma represents the foundation, on which further doctrines
concerning the nature of Christ and the interplay of the Holy Spirit rest.
Having agreed on the
homousios of God, Christ and the Holy
Spirit, the next question that needed to be clarified was about the human nature
of Jesus in its relation to the divine one. Two rivalling positions can be
identified. On the one side, the Alexandrian school of thought stressed the
union of the two natures of Christ. Patriarch Cyrill of Alexandria spoke of a
physical unification and of "one nature of the incarnate
logos". In other
words, the
logos did not enter a human being, but became truly human,
remaining divine at the same time. For this reason, Cyrill pleaded to call the
Virgin Mary "Mother of God" (Gr.
Theotokos).
[52] On the other side, the
Antiochean school of thought stressed the full humanity of Christ and placed
both natures independently next to each other. The
logos took residence,
so to speak, in the temple of the human Jesus. Patriarch Nestorius of
Constantinople (an Antiochian) therefore rejected the title "Mother of God" for
Mary and suggested to use the term "Mother of Christ" (Gr.
Christotokos)
instead.
The Council of Ephesus (431 C.E.) was supposed to clarify this issue.
The Antiochian delegation had not yet arrived, when Cyrill opened the Council
and, not surprisingly, his position was confirmed. When the Antiochian Bishops
arrived, they initiated a counter-Council and the two sides excommunicated each
other. Emperor Theodosius II had to temporarily detain the two main opponents,
Nestorius and Cyrill. The former had to abdicate (and was granted retreat in his
Antiochian Monastery, but was exiled several times later on) and the latter
bribed his way back to his Alexandrian Patriarchate. This was a fateful
precedence for finishing off any opponent through manipulation and "the terror
of Council".
[53]
Nestorius' concern that an unreflected belief in only one Christ-nature
would threaten the true humanity of Jesus proved right when Cyrill's successors
developed his teachings further and saw the two natures of Christ completely
merged into one. The human nature of Christ would get dissolved in the divine
one like "a drop of honey in the ocean". Monophysitism (Gr.
mono [one]
phusis [nature]) in effect cancelled the human nature in Christ, implying
that his humanity was substantially different from ours.
This doctrine was branded as heretical at the Council of Chalcedon (451
C.E.), declaring the doctrine of the "hypostatic union" (i.e., two
natures/substances/essences [Gr.
hupostasis] unmixed and inseparable, in
one person) as dogmatical. At the same time, the "heresy" of Nestorius was
confirmed, although he was "factually
rehabilitated"
[54] through the (refined)
doctrine of Christ's two natures. About this decision and its consequences for
the Eastern Empire, Fowden writes:
But the theological definition Chalcedon offered was heavily
influenced by Constantinople's
wish to keep in step with Rome, which always followed a two-nature
Christology. The price
of this tribute to the West, to the old Roman ideal of a single
Mediterranean world, was the
alienation of the East and so of any prospect of world empire.
By excluding them, Chalcedon
gave impetus and sharper profile to the two doctrines, Monophysitism
and Nestorianism, that
did so much to focus the Byzantine Commonwealth's
self-awareness.
[55]
Nestorians had thus no choice but to emigrate and their denomination
became particularly successful in the Persian Empire, where it established its
doctrinal independence in 486 C.E., at the Synod of
Seleucia-Ctesiphon.
[56] Their inner force was
demonstrated by a highly developed theology (Schools of Seleukia and Nisibis)
and an impressive missionary
zeal.
[57]
Monophysitism violently opposed the Council's decisions and continued
to spread in the Eastern Empire. In 490 C.E. Alexandria, Jerusalem and Antioch
had Monophysist Patriarchs. In the sixth century, Monophysitism was preferred
over Chalcedonism in Nubia, Ethiopia and Southern Arabia in the South, and in
Armenia and Iberia (Southern Georgia) in the
East.
[58]
Chalcedon had presented an unsolvable predicament for the Byzantine
Emperors. Either they identified themselves with and enforced the decisions of
Chalcedon, which resulted in the dogmatic-national emigration of the
Cyrillic-monophysite East, or they tried to reconcile with and appease the
Monophysites, which promptly endangered the confessional unity with Rome. The
history of the following centuries provides enough examples for both policies.
It can safely be said that the seed for the eventual schism between East and
West (1054 C.E.) was planted at Chalcedon.
With the Eastern Provinces having been reconquered from the Persians
and the rise of Islam in the seventh century, the need to unify and strengthen
the Byzantine Empire was more urgent than ever before. To re-establish
ecclesiastical unity between the Chalcedonian and Monophysite Churches was
therefore once again on top of the agenda of the Byzantine Emperor. Patriarch
Sergios of Constantinople and others developed a formula that should reconcile
the Monophysites with the Chalcedonian creed.
The compromise found was expressed in the formula of Christ having "two
natures but only one will", a doctrine called "Monotheletism". Accepted even by
Pope Honorius I, Monotheletism became Imperial Law in 638
C.E.
[59]
However, the attempt to unify the Empire was only partial and with the
Oriental Provinces being lost again, this time to Islam, the compromise formula
became obsolete. Emperor Constans II tried
to end the theological dispute that had risen over this
formula
[60] by forbidding its use (648 C.E.).
This was the occasion for the newly elected Pope Martin I to challenge
the Imperial authority on religious grounds by convening a Synode in Rome (649
C.E.) where Monotheletism and its proponents were declared as heretical. Because
of their opposition and the political implications this Synod had (challenging
the authority of Constantinople and reinforcing the latent danger of schism),
both the Pope and Maximus, the main proponent of this dispute, were tortured and
exiled.
However, under Constantine IV, the issue was taken up again at the
sixth Ecumenic Council, again in Constantinople (680/681 C.E.). Monotheletism
was rejected and the Chalcedonian doctrine was confirmed, by affirming that
Christ had not only two natures, but also two wills. These two wills, the
Council decreed, were not in conflict with each other, rather Jesus' human will
must be thought of having completely and voluntarily surrendered to God's will.
This did not annul Jesus' freedom of choice, since surrendering one's will to
God constitutes the highest expression of human liberty. This Council basically
confirmed, respectively anathematized the old (Chalcedonian) positions and marks
the end of the "dogmatic epoch".
From a "post-dogmatic", end-of-twentieth century's point of view one
can only pause and wonder with what vigour, violence and fanatism the
"representatives" of Christ had opposed each other. In developing ever more
complex (critics would say abstruse) doctrines about the ontological reality of
Christ, and in an attempt to define the "undefinable" with increasingly
sophisticated (and often ambigious) terminology, the "object of study's" basic
message of love and unity seems to have been largely ignored.
Again I say to you, that if two of you shall agree on the earth
concerning any matter,
whatsoever it may be that they shall ask, it shall come to them from my
Father who is in [the] heavens.
For where two or three are gathered together unto my name, there am I
in the midst of them
(Matt. 18-20, Darby).
Christ's statement to his disciples seems to be both a promise and an
admonition. Agreement and unity of vision, it is suggested, are the key
ingredients for attaining wisdom (following Solomon's example) or whatever
united and faithful souls may ask for. Applying this spiritual principle to the
various Counsels where hundreds of Bishops were "gathered together unto
[Christ's] name" and contrasting it with the "terror" of verbal and physical
abuse, of manipulation and intrigues that were so characteristic of these
meetings one seriously wonders how "inspired" all the decisions and formulas
were.
More seriously than the nature of the conduct in which the Councils
were held is the fact that their outcome was to a large extent already
predetermined. Depending on the theological (and political) orientation of the
Emperors who convened (and often controlled) the Councils, it was clear
beforehand, which positions would be rejected, or even anathematized and
declared as "heretical" and which one would become official and "orthodox"
doctrine. "Dogmatical orthodoxy and political loyalty", as Beyschlag remarks,
"became inseparable and can be considered as interchangable terms" (116,
translation mine).
This is not to reject out of hand and entirely all the insights that
the Church has gained about the nature of Christ over the centuries. But to
postulate that they were divinely inspired and of equal value as the Gospels
themselves, is more a political than a theological statement, meant to secure
the position of power and authority.
[61] To
oppose one of the Councils' dogmas is still today considered formally as heresy.
In the words of Harnack, the author of the classic seven-volume
Dogmengeschichte (History of Dogma), "according to the conception of the
church, dogma can be
nothing else than the revealed faith
itself."
[62]
Of course, the equation of dogma (revealed doctrine) with Christ's
revelation itself is problematic, given the various Christologies that exist, as
the historical overview has shown. Such an exclusivist view is therefore
rejected by all other Christian denominations that nevertheless share the claim
of Christian exclusivity.
[63] This claim for
exclusivity, in turn, is rejected by most other religions, which, ironically,
have similar claims of their own. In the light of interfaith dialogue however,
this position has to be respected and addressed as
well
[64] and the following chapter will deal
with these Christological questions from a Bahá´í point of
view.
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Some Answered Questions.
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Bahá´u´lláh.
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The Hidden Words. Oxford: Oneworld Publ.,
1992.
-----.
The Proclamation of Bahá´u´lláh.
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Beyschlag, Karlmann.
Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte II (
Gott
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Paradise and Paradigm. Key Symbols in Persian
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Dembowski, Hermann.
Einführung in die Christologie.
Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft, 1976.
Deschner, Karlheinz.
Abermals krähte der Hahn. Hamburg:
Rowohlt, 1979 [1962].
Fazel, Seena and Fananapazir, Khazeh. "A Bahá´í
Approach to the Claim of Eclusivity and
Uniqueness in Christianity." The Journal of Bahá´í
Studies 3.2 (1990-91): 15-24.
Fowden, Garth.
Empire to Commonwealth. Consequences of monotheism in
late antiquity.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Franzen, August.
Kleine Kirchengeschichte. Freiburg: Herder,
1975 [1965].
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Christologische Hoheitstitel. Göttingen:
Vandenhoek und Ruprecht, 1995 [1963].
Heaton, E.W.
A Short Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets.
Oxford: Oneworld Publ., 1997
[1977].
Hünermann, Peter.
Jesus Christus. Gottes Wort in der Zeit. Eine
systematische Christologie.
Münster: Aschendorff, 1994.
McLean, J.A. "Prolegomena to a Bahá´í Theology." The
Journal of Bahá´í Studies 5.1 (1992):
24-67.
Schillebeeckx, Edward.
Jesus. Die Geschichte von einem Lebenden.
Freiburg: Herder, 1992.
Schäfer, Udo.
The light shineth in darkness. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1979 [1977].
Swidler, Leonard and Mojzes, Paul, eds.
The Uniqueness of Jesus. A
Dialogue with Paul F. Knitter
(Faith meets Faith Series). Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,
1997.
Young, Brad.
Jesus. The Jewish Theologian. Peabody, Mass.:
Hendrickson Publ., 1995.
Notes
[1] Of course it would be too simplistic
to assume that any of these titles is exclusively related to and the origin of
one specific Christology. These designations had various layers of meanings, and
were consequently used in different contexts, as will be shown.
[2] For a detailed philological overview
of the various scholarly positions on the five most important christological
titles (Son of man, Kyrios, Christ, Son of David, Son of God) see Hahn,
Christologische Hoheitstitel.
[3] Cf. e.g. "Whosoever shall confess
me before men, him shall the Son of man also confess before the angels of God"
(Luke 12:8) with " Whosoever therefore shall confess me before men, him
will I confess also before my Father which is
in heaven" (Matt. 10:32).
[4] It should be noted that the Hebrew
word adam not only refers to someone of the male gender, but also to a
human being in the generic sense.
[5] Heaton writes that between 300 BC
and 300 CE apocalyptic writings "emerged and flourished in Judea", and he lists
The Book of Enoch, The Apocalypse of Abraham, The Assumption of Moses and The
Testament of Job. However, only the book of Daniel has been accepted into the
canon of Hebrew scriptures (see Heaton, A Short Introduction to the Old
Testament Prophets 157).
[6] 1 Enoch 46:1-3, quoted in Brad H.
Young, Jesus the Jewish Theologian 248.
[7] The Apocalypse of Enoch is included
in the Abessinian Bible, and one reference to it can be found in the apocryphal
Gospel of Jude (verse 14, referring to Henoch 1:9). Quoted in Deschner,
Abermals kraehte der Hahn 20.
[8] Flusser, Jesus in
Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten, quoted in Young, Jesus the Jewish
Theologian 243.
[9] In four songs, embedded in the 'Book
of Consolation' (chapters 42, 49, 50, 52-53), Isaiah describes the
sufferings and ultimate victory of the 'Servant of God'. See also Ps.
22, which thematizes the sufferings and hopes of
the 'Just One', and whose opening line ("My God, my God, why hast thou
forsaken me?") Jesus quotes on the cross,
before rendering up his spirit (Matt. 27:46).
[10] See Luke 22:37 for a direct
reference to Isaiah 53:12. Other, more general allusions, Luke 22:19-20, Mark
10:45.
[11] Young, Jesus the Jewish
Theologian 244, 247.
[12] Young, Jesus the Jewish
Theologian 246. Young uses the RSV translation. All other quotes (unless
mentioned otherwise) are taken from the King James Bible.
[13] See, for example, Matt. 19:17,
20:23, 24:36, 26:39, John 5:22, 5:30, 8:28 a.o.
[14] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
Some Answered Questions 128.
[15] John Hick has identified these
three perspectives: the exclusivist one (accepting only one's faith as true and
rejecting all others as false; the inclusivist one (giving some credence to
other religions but claiming the "full truth" for one's own: and the pluralist
one (regarding all religions as equally "true" and valid). Needless to say that
for Hick, the most appropriate approach for interreligious dialogue would be the
latter one. The advantages and limitations of this model will be discussed in
the next chapter.
[16] Traditional Biblical exegesis has
made use of a fourfold level of interpretation: the literal, the moral, the
allegorical, and the eschatological (messianic) level.
[17] This connection is only described
in the Gospel of Luke, not in Mark.
[18]
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 57. It was for this
reason, Bahá´u´lláh explains in another context, that
Jesus did not marry and lead a family life (see Proclamation of
Bahá´u´lláh 95-6; Epistle to the Son of the
Wolf 49-50).
[19] The four recognized ways of
interpreting the Bible are the literal one, the allegorical (symbolic) one, the
moral one, and the eschatological (referring to the 'end-time')
one.
[20]
Bahá´u´lláh, Hidden Words, Persian No. 27. See
also Nos. 26, 28-31. These admonitions are reminiscent of Matt.
6:19-24.
[21] Mark 3:10-12. For similar
instances, see Mark 1:24 (where Jesus was addressed as "the Holy One of God");
Mark 1:34; Luke 8:28.
[22] It is important to remember that
the eternal Covenant, as it was firstly established with Noah (Gen. 9), and
subsequently renewed with Abraham (Gen. 12:3), included all humanity. The
privileged position with which God eventually favoured Israel (by inference,
Judaism and Christianity) can therefore not be understood as excluding other
peoples and religions from divine grace and guidance. Furthermore, this
privilege is conditional, based on the twin obligation to love God and keep his
laws (Deut. 7:6-12).
[23] 2 Samuel 7:12-16. The parallel
report in the Chronicles (1 Chr. 17:11-14) omits the reference to the potential
chastisement of the Messiah, possibly out of theological concern.
[24] The statement "I will be his
father, and he will be my son" is a socalled formula of adoption or
inthronisation (see also Ps.s 2:7, 89:21, 110:3), originally used to anoint a
king, later also the Judges, priests and prophets. In this way, the term
"messiah" (the anointed one) combined the notions of royal authority with the
spiritual functions of guarding the (divine) Law and living a sanctified
life.
[25] Ezekiel calls him "Prince" (as
opposed to "King") and stresses his mediating and guiding (shepherd) functions
(Ez. 34:23-24; 37:24-25); Zechariah describes the spiritual qualities (justice,
humility) of the future Saviour (Zech. 9:9-10); Isaiah even lets the Persian
king Cyrus take the role of the (political) Messiah (Isa. 45:1), while at the
same time he develops the model of the suffering and humble "Servant of God" to
bring spiritual liberation (see n. 6); and Daniel had his apocalyptic visions of
a superhuman figure coming "with the clouds of heaven" (see above).
[26] Matthew (26:64) divides Jesus'
answer in confirming the question and foretelling his return; Luke (22:67-70)
goes even further and separates the question so that Jesus' confirmation to be
the Son of God is detached from its eschatological context.
[27] See Hahn, Christologische
Hoheitstitel 289-292.
[28] Prominent advocates of this
belief were Theodotos of Byzantium (excommunicated end of the 2nd
cent.), Artemon in Rome (around 235), and Paul of Samosata (d. after 272). It
should also be noted that several Judaeo-Christian sects, already extinct in the
fourth century, have rejected the notion of Jesus being "divine" (Ebionites,
Nazarenes).
See Deschner, Abermals kraehte der Hahn 375-405, for more
details of the following historical overview; Huenermann, Jesus Christus,
Gottes Wort in der Zeit 128-56, for a parallel theological (Catholic)
overview. The differences between these two positions could not be more
profound. Deschner attacks mercilessly the development of the (Catholic) Church
as "deviation" from the historical religion. Huenermann, on the other side,
describes the gradual unfoldment and maturation of the Church, from early
"unreflected" to ever more complex understanding of the transcendent
verities.
[29] See Deschner, Abermals kraehte
der Hahn 389. Important protagonists of Modalism were Bishop Noetos of
Smyrna, Sabelius and Praxeas (all around 200). Ironically, Pope Victor I who
excommunicated the Adoptionist Theodotos (see n. 27) did so under the premises
of Modalism.
[30] Schonfield, Those incredible
Christians 118, quoted in Schaefer, The light shineth in darkness
83.
[31] Schoeps, Theologie und
Geschichte des Judenchristentums 322, quoted in Schaefer, The light
shineth in darkness 83.
[32] Schaefer, The light shineth in
darkness 82. It is unfortunate that Schaefer, a prominent German
Bahá´í scholar, joins in the chorus of such critical
one-sided voices. Space does not permit to even list (let alone dispute) all the
allegations that have been brought up against Paul. (An apology doing justice to
Paul from a Bahá´í point of view has yet to be written.)
Suffice it to say that Paul never claimed that "God in his essence was walking
on earth", as Schaefer insinuates. In fact, Paul's description of Christ being
the "image of God" (cf. 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15; Heb. 1:3) is quite compatible
with the prominent 'Sun Mirror' metaphor (describing the relationship
between God and his manifestations) in the Bahá´í
Writings.
[33] See Hahn, Christologische
Hoheitstitel ch. 5; Schillebeeckx, Jesus 380-83; Commentary of
Neue Jerusalemer Bibel to Phil. 2:6-11.
[34] Wisdom is a feminine noun in
Hebrew (hokma) and Greek (sophia). Furthermore, the feminine gender is
employed here, because Wisdom is being discussed in the context of the Hebrew
Writings, where she is portrayed as Solomon's bride (Wis. 8:2, 8:9), and also
likened to a Mother figure (Sir. 15:2).
[35] Further personifications of
sophia can be found in Prov. 1:20-33; 3:16-19; 8 and 9.
[36] At least on one occasion, Jesus
identifies himself with Wisdom (Matt. 11:19). Paul refers to Christ as "the
power and wisdom (sophia) of God" (1 Cor. 1:24). The Church Fathers
(Justin, Origen, Tertullian) regarded sophia, logos and "First-born" as
synonymous expressions of the Holy Spirit (see Sours, "The Maid of Heaven, the
image of Sophia, and the Logos. Personification of the Spirit of God in
Scripture and Sacred Literature", Journal of Bahá´í Studies
4:1).
[37] Apart from the direct reference
(see n. 35), Jesus also claims to be greater than Solomon (Matt. 12:42) who was
known as embodiment of Wisdom. The incidents where Jesus exorcises evil spirits
who know that he is the Son of God (cf. Matt. 8:29; Mark 3:11; Luke 4:41;
8:28) remain puzzling unless brought into context with Christ being superior to
Solomon who had power over all evil spirits (who knew and dreaded
him).
[38] Schillebeeckx, Jesus
430.
[39] God is defined as one Universal
Cause (Gr. arche), Jesus as human being, empowered with this
arche.
[40] A complete survey, however brief,
of all the Christological models would go way beyond the scope of this chapter.
The following historical and theological overview therefore covers only the
first few centuries, during which the basic creeds were formed and refined.
Suffice it to say that each epoch (from Medieval Scholasticism to Enlightenment
Scepticism to Postmodern Pluralism) has produced different outlooks and insights
into the Christological question.
For current (pluralistic) discussions see, e.g., Swidler and Mojzes,
eds., The Uniqueness of Jesus. A Dialogue with Paul E.
Knitter.
[41] In the West, as Deschner
pointedly notes, the intellectual level of the theologians was not so advanced
at that time, to be able to follow this theological dispute. The two only
eminent theologians in third century Rome were counter-popes, Hippolyt
(constantly opposed) and Novatian (excommunicated). It is also noteworthy that,
at the Council of Nicaea, only seven delegates (out of approximately 300) were
from the West.
[42] Quoted from Huenermann, Jesus
Christus 144-5, in my translation.
[43] The Arian dispute is a good
example for this political influence. When two years after the Council
Constantine changed his mind, he summoned the Bishops to another Synod in Nicaea
(327), where Arius was rehabilitated again. His main opponent Bishop Athanasius,
on the other hand, was exiled five times under Constantine and his successors.
During the reign of Constantine's son Constantius Arianism became official
Church doctrine, but was forbidden again under the Catholic emperors Gratian
(375 383) in the West and Theodosius (379 395) in the
East.
[44] Aristoteles regarded the number
three as sacred and defined threeness as number for the whole because it
embraces beginning, middle and end. Already Xenokrates (400 BC) postulated a
Trinity at the peak of the universe, and all the Hellenistic religions had
trinitarian concepts, such as the "three-in-one" God Hermes in the theology of
Hermes Trismegistos, or the triad of Zagreus, Phanes and Dionysos in the
Dionysian religion. Among the Roman triads were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, and
in Egypt Isis, Sarapis (Osiris) and Horus (see Deschner, Abermals kraehte der
Hahn 381-82).
[45] See Huenermann, Jesus
Christus 151-52.
[46] See Deschner, Abermals kraehte
der Hahn 386.
[47] See e.g. Matt. 16:27; 24:36;
25:31; Eph. 1:15; 1 Tim. 5:21; Rev. 3:5.
[48] See Mark 12:36 for David; Luke
1:15 for John the Baptist; for Christ himself (Luke 3:22; 4:1), and for pious
people (Luke 1:41 and 1:67 for John the Baptist's parents; Luke 2:25 for Simeon;
Acts 2:4 for the believers at Pentecoast; Luke 12:12 or Acts 5:5 for the
apostolic mission).
[49] See 2 Tim. 1:14; Titus 3:5 speaks
about the "renewing of the Holy Ghost" in the hearts of the
believers.
[50] Christians believe that this
prophecy found its fulfillment through the outpourings of the Holy Spirit at
Pentecoast. Muslims regard this as a reference to Muhammad, and
Bahá´ís see an archetypal function in the role of the
Comforter, which is being displayed with the coming of every Manifestation of
God. The latter perspective is supported by Stephen's final speech prior his
martyrdom, "Ye stiffnecked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, ye do always
resist the Holy Ghost: as your fathers did, so do ye" (Acts 7:51).
[51] It is interesting to note that
those critics argue from "classical" points of view. Servet from a Modalist
perspective, Biandrata from an Arian one, Sozzini takes up Ebionite thoughts
(Dembowski, Einführung in die Christologie 147-8.
[52] Cyrill was an active promoter of
the cult that developed around the figure of the Virgin Mary. He established two
Holy Days (Mary's Annunciation and Mary's Ascension), both overlapping with (and
meant to surpress) pagan celebrations of Goddesses (see Deschner, Abermals
kraehte der Hahn 368).
[53] Beyschlag, Grundriss der
Dogmengeschichte 53.
[54] Ibid. 134.
[55] Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth.
Consequences of monotheism in late antiquity 117. "Constantinople's wish to keep
in step with Rome" was in fact a political turn, initiated by Theododius' II
sister who (together with General Markian, her future husband and emperor-to-be)
seized power after her brother's sudden death in 450. The threat of the
Alexandrian Patriarch Dioskur becoming too powerful was one of the reasons for
the approach towards Rome (see Beyschlag, Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte
II 57-8).
[56] Today recognized as a misnomer,
more appropriate designations would be East Syriac Christianity, or "Church of
the East"(self-designation), or "Persian Christianity" (referring to the
community in the Sasanian Empire). However, the term "Nestorianism" continues to
be used out of convenience (see Buck, Paradise and Paradigm
4).
[57] Missionaries established
communities in Malabar/India and Chinese Turkestan; in the ninth century they
came as far as Central China and Tibet. The East Syrian Church "became the most
influential form of extra-Roman Christianity" (Buck, Paradise and Paradigm
38), before it was destroyed and its adherents decimated by the Mongols.
Parts of the Syrian Church (Chaldeans, Malabar Christians) united with Rome in
the sixteenth century and today there are an estimated 80.000 believers in Irak,
Iran and Syria, 5.000 in India, and 25.000 in America (Franzen, Kleine
Kirchengeschichte 84).
[58] Fowden identifies political as
well as theological reasons for such a preference. In the case of Armenia, for
example, Nestorianism's growing success in Iran may have made it seem less
attractive to Armenians. More significantly, the tensions against Constantinople
who did not support them against the Persians, led the Armenians eventually to
reject the Council of Chalcedon's decision and opt for Monophytism. The rise of
Monophysitism in Ethiopia and Southern Arabia was similarly a symptom of the
Byzantine Commonwealth's scope for independence, or, from Constantinople's
viewpoint, disloyalty. This is best illustrated by Ethiopia's national epic,
Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings), which provokes a counterclaim to
universal authority by asserting to be even superior to Byzantine, because of
their king's descension to Solomon's firstborn. Nubia (today Sudan) converted to
the Egyptian (Coptic) brand of Monophysitism and, despite of being cut off from
other Christian countries, remained Christian until its eventual Islamization in
the sixteenth century (see Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth ch. 5).
[59] Sergios originally proposed the
concept of "two natures and one energy", which was opposed by the Jerusaleme
Patriarch Sophronius. He then converted to the notion of "one will", hardly more
than a change of name. Concerning the Pope's consent it is said that he was not
familiar enough with "Greek theology" to realize the Monophysite "disguise" of
the formula (Franzen, Kleine Kirchengeschichte 88). When the formula was
rejected in 681 and, as usual, their proponents anathematized, Pope Honorius was
cursed as well. The "fall" of that Pope was brought to light again in 1870,
during the preparations for the dogma of Papal Infallibility, and caused quite
some embarrassment.
[60] The leading figure of the
Chalcedonian orthodoxy's opposition was Maximus Confessor. He argued that the
faculty of will belongs to the two natures of Christ, not to his one
hypostasis. Christ therefore has two natures, two will, and two energies.
[61] Emperor Justinian was the first
to make such a claim. For Beyschlag, this proves the "surpassing dignity in
dogmatic- historical respect" (130, translation mine) of the (first four)
Councils. For me, this is rather a dubious reference, given that under Justinian
the persecution of "pagans" and "heretics" reached their climax. Not to accept
the official Church doctrine and to engage in any other form of religious
activity could lead to capital punishment. He also introduced coercive
conversion and baptism and placed all non-Christians and non-orthodox Christians
outside the law. Furthermore, he completely controlled and regulated internal
Church affairs. As a typical representative of "Caesaropapism" even the Pope had
to surrender to his will (see Deschner, Abermals kraehte der Hahn 327,
395-6, 450, 470). The political nature of this argument (and its devastating
consequences for "heretics" and non-Christians) is equally valid for the Roman
Catholic Church in the West, once it had assumed a similar role of secular
leadership (from the eleventh century onwards).
[62] Harnack, History of Dogma
1:9, quoted in J.A. McLean, "Prolegomena to a Bahá´í
Theology." The Journal of Bahá´í Studies 5.1 (1992): 34.
[63] "Christian exclusivity was later
summarized in the traditional Roman Catholic doctrine, which stated that outside
the Church there is no salvation, and in its Protestant missionary equivalent,
that outside Christianity there is no salvation" (Fazel and Fananapazir, "A
Bahá´í Approach to the Claim of Exclusivity and Uniqueness in
Christianity." The Journal of Bahá´í Studies 3.2 (1990-91):
18).
[64] The struggle of Christian
theologians engaged in interfaith dialogue to redefine and come to terms with
the concept of "Christ's uniqueness" so that it does not become an impediment to
"real dialogue", is well documented in Paul Knitter's "Five Theses on the
Uniqueness of Jesus" and its twenty responses (Swidler and Mojzes, eds., The
Uniqueness of Jesus. A Dialogue with Paul E. Knitter). The compatibility of
many of these concepts with the Bahá´í Faith will be explored
in the next chapter.
[+CHAPTER4]
THE SON AND THE FATHER - A
BAHÁ´Í VIEW
In the Bahá´í Writings, Jesus Christ is referred to
several times as
Son of Man. In the passage quoted below,
Bahá´u´lláh pays a moving tribute to Jesus. He testifies
of him, as foretold in the Bible (John 15:26), and confirms and elucidates the
spiritual meaning of the Biblical healing
miracles.
[1] Most interestingly, the impact of
Christ's sacrifice is described in inspirational terms, being universal and
perennial in nature, complementing the traditional view of individual
redemption, which is also confirmed in the Bahá´í
Writings.
[2] Cole writes that "Jesus' passion is
here identified as the motive force behind Christian civilization, the unseen
source of human advance" and acknowledges the innovative contribution of
Bahá´u´lláh "in linking the redemption gained by the
cross to ideas such as civilization, progress, and the arts and
sciences."
[3] Taking all these aspects into
consideration, it is safe to say that here the title
Son of Man has a
messianic meaning rather than being a reference to the human station of
Jesus.
Know thou that when the Son of Man yielded up His breath to God, the
whole creation wept with a great weeping. By sacrificing Himself, however, a
fresh capacity was infused into all created things. Its
evidences, as witnessed in all the peoples of the earth, are now
manifest before thee. The deepest wisdom which the sages have uttered, the
profoundest learning which any mind hath unfolded, the arts which the
ablest hands have produced, the influence exerted by the most potent of
rulers, are but manifestations of
the quickening power released by His transcendent, His all-pervasive,
and resplendent Spirit.
We testify that when He came into the world, He shed the splendor of
His glory upon all created things. Through Him the leper recovered from the
leprosy of perversity and ignorance. Through Him, the unchaste and wayward were
healed. Through His power, born of Almighty God, the eyes of the blind were
opened,
and the soul of the sinner sanctified.
Leprosy may be interpreted as any veil that interveneth between man and
the recognition of the Lord, his God.
Whoso alloweth himself to be shut out from Him is indeed a leper, who
shall not be remembered in the
Kingdom of God, the Mighty, the All-Praised. We bear witness that
through the power of the Word of God
every leper was cleansed, every sickness was healed, every human
infirmity was banished. He it is Who
purified the world. Blessed is the man who, with a face beaming with
light, hath turned towards Him.
[4]
The eschatological references to the coming of the
Son of Man
have, according to Bahá´í view, found their fulfillment in
the subsequent missions of Muhammad, the Báb and
Bahá´u´lláh. In the
Kitab-i Iqan, we find an
extensive exegesis of Matt. 24:29-31, where the apocalyptic scenario of the
shaking of "the powers of heaven" is explained in spiritual terms, although the
physical (literal) realization of some of the phenomena is
acknowledged.
[5] Primarily aimed at justifying
the claim of the Báb, Bahá´u´lláh's apology is
universal in character. Every prophet comes at a time when religion has lost its
purity and illuminating power (one meaning of the darkening of sun, moon and
stars). All of them are faced with the opposition of the clergy of previous
religions who also prevent their followers to recognize the new divine Messenger
(another meaning of the same imagery). The underlying motives of this clerical
opposition, according to Bahá´u´lláh, are thirst for
power and material wealth, ignorance, corruption, selfishness, pride and
hypocrisy. These self-centered characteristics are also the cause for the rising
of manifold sects, because "in leadership they have recognized the ultimate
object of their endeavour, and account pride and haughtiness as the highest
attainments of their heart's desire." This is the true meaning of the
"oppression" (Matt. 24:29), when people, in their search for truth and divine
knowledge, "should not know where to go for it and from whom to seek
it".
[6] Bahá´u´lláh's
stern rebuke of the clergy is reminiscent of Christ's critique of the Pharisees
and Bahá´u´lláh even compares the divine leaders with "a
number of voracious beasts [that] have gathered and preyed upon the carrion of
the souls of men."
[7] This "oppression" and the
other events described are "the essential feature of every
Revelation."
[8]
Consequently, in the scheme of 'eternal return', every divine Messenger
succeeding Christ (i.e., Muhammad, Báb and
Bahá´u´lláh) could be regarded as "the Son of man
[coming] in the glory of his father" (Matt. 16:24). However, just as the title
'Son' is most appropriate for Jesus, and the designation 'Seal' most befitting
for Muhammad, the station of 'Fatherhood' would best characterize the
dispensation of Bahá´u´lláh.
This can be best explained with the doctrine of the 'twofold station'
of the Messengers of God.
From the point of view of the "station of pure abstraction and
essential unity",
[9] every Manifestation of God
could be addressed with the same name. Such an understanding helps to avoid the
temptation of regarding a certain title as more prominent than others, and of
elevating one religion above the rest. From the point of view of the second
station however, the "station of
distinction",
[10] certain names and titles are
surely more meaningful than others, because "each of the Manifestations of God
hath a distinct individuality, a definitely prescribed mission, a predestined
Revelation, and specially designated
limitations."
[11] Regarding the designation
Son of God for instance, Stockman has aptly argued that "while all
Manifestations exemplify perfect Sonship, it was a particular and central
characteristic of Jesus Christ's mission to exemplify such a
relationship."
[12] Similarly it can be argued
that the concept of 'Fatherhood' fits best both the personality and the mission
of Bahá´u´lláh.
[13]
The Father
It is not so much the image of the
Son of Man that is taken up
again with reference to Bahá´u´lláh, but the appearance
"in the glory of the Father", shortened to "the Father", which is stressed when
describing the station of
Bahá´u´lláh.
[14] In the
following passage, it is Christ who, as the
Son of Man, hails the advent
of the Father. This quote is taken from a tablet that
Bahá´u´lláh called
Lawh-i Aqdas (Most Holy
Tablet).
[15]
The river Jordan is joined to the Most Great Ocean, and the Son, in the
holy vale, crieth out: ´Here am I,
here am I O Lord, my God!', whilst Sinai circleth round the House, and
the Burning Bush calleth aloud:
´He Who is the Desired One is come in His transcendent majesty.'
Say, Lo! The Father is come, and that
which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled! This is the Word
which the Son concealed, when to
those around Him He said: ´Ye cannot bear it now.' And when the
appointed time was fulfilled and the
Hour had struck, the Word shone forth above the horizon of the Will of
God.
[16]
Likewise, in a tablet to the Pope Pius IX,
Bahá´u´lláh raises the claim of being the 'Father' who
the Christians have been waiting for for almost nineteen hundred years. Again,
as in the passage quoted above, Bahá´u´lláh equals the
station of the Father with that of the Word (Gr.
logos) that had been
concealed by Christ, because of the inability of his contemporaries to "bear" it
(cf. John 16:12).
The Word which the Son concealed is made manifest. It hath been sent
down in the form of the human
temple in this day. Blessed be the Lord Who is the Father! He,
verily, is come unto the nations in His
most great majesty. Turn your faces towards Him, O concourse of the
righteous... This is the day whereon
the Rock (Peter) crieth out and shouteth, and celebrateth the praise of
its Lord, the All-Possessing, the Most
High, saying: ´Lo! The Father is come, and that which ye were
promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled!...'
My body longeth for the cross, and Mine head waiteth the thrust of the
spear, in the path of the All-Merciful,
that the world may be purged from its
transgressions....
[17]
In describing the fatherly characteristics of
Bahá´u´lláh's life and mission, we can analyze the
primary duties and responsibilities of a father towards his family and look for
equivalent aspects promoted by Bahá´u´lláh for the
family of humankind. A responsible father would provide for and support his
family and would be concerned about the well-being of all its members. He would
make sure that his children receive the best education possible and can develop
their talents. He would also guide and counsel his children and foster the ties
of family unity.
[18] It is safe to say that all
of these aspects the well-being of humanity, education, guidance and
consultation, and peace and unity are central and interdependent themes
in Bahá´u´lláh's Revelation.
Concerning the well-being of humanity,
Bahá´u´lláh declares that his Teachings provide the
basis for its achievement. "The well-being of mankind, its peace and security,
are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established. This unity
can never be achieved so long as the counsels which the Pen of the Most High
hath revealed are suffered to pass
unheeded."
[19] These teachings consist of Laws,
Ordinances and Exhortations, covering all aspects of life, personal and social,
spiritual and material. Bahá´u´lláh himself likens his
teachings to parental educational measures. "We school you with the rod of
wisdom and laws, like unto the father who educateth his son, and this for naught
but the protection of your own selves and the elevation of your
stations."
[20]
Bahá´u´lláh has established the institution of
the House of Justice and delegated his divine, 'parental' authority to its
members who should "regard themselves as the guardians appointed of God for all
that dwell on earth."
[21] It seems that the
children of mankind, on the verge of maturity, are still under age, so to speak,
and in need of a guardian.
[22] However, just as
responsible parents would acknowledge the growing maturity and independence of
their adolescent children and regard themselves more as partners and helpmates
than as educators, the Bahá´í administrative institutions
should play a similar role. Bahá´ís are encouraged to see in
them "not only their elected representatives, but their helper, - one might
almost say their father - and the one to whom they can confidently take their
problem.
[23] The guiding role of the
Bahá´í institutions is also described by taking up the
ancient imagery of the shepherd and his
flock.
[24]
O ye Men of Justice! Be ye, in the realm of God, shepherds unto His
sheep and guard
them from the ravening wolves that have appeared in disguise, even as
ye would guard
your own sons. Thus exhorteth you the Counsellor, the
Faithful.
[25]
The divinely ordained institution of the Local Spiritual Assembly
operates at the first
levels of human society and is the basic administrative unit of
Bahá'u'lláh's World Order...
It protects the Cause of God; it acts as the loving shepherd of the
Bahá'í flock.
[26]
The "Bahá´í flock" consists of people from every
religious and ethnic background. Sears has therefore argued that Christ's
statement, "And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must
bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be one fold, and one
shepherd" (John 10:16), relates to Bahá´u´lláh's mission
as he "is the Shepherd of all the sheep from whatever flock they may have
come."
[27] This view has been popularized among
Bahá´ís, as Sours
observes.
[28] However, the Christian
interpretation that this refers to the uniting of diverse pagan peoples and the
Jews, is certainly compatible with the Bahá´í point of view
of "the progressive nature of prophetic
fulfillment".
[29] According to this
perspective, "visible evidences of fulfillment will be greater in this age than
in any past age, so much so that it can be said that such prophecies culminate
in this age."
[30]
But Bahá´u´lláh is not only adressing humanity
as a whole in his role as 'universal Father'. He provides abundant guidance for
parents, often addressing specifically the fathers. He confirms and reinforces
the institution of marriage, which he regards as foundation of community life,
calling it a "fortress for well-being and
salvation".
[31] He views it as a moral law to
marry and upholds the primary purpose of raising children, prioritizing moral
and spiritual education.
[32] It is precisely in
this area of comprehensive education that Bahá´u´lláh
encourages and exhorts fathers to take a more decisive
part.
[33] The importance of the mother as
"first educator" is being recognized as "the most important formative influence
in his [the child's] development". On the other hand, "the father also has the
responsibility of educating his children, and this responsibility is so weighty
that Bahá'u'lláh has stated that a father who fails to exercise it forfeits his
rights of fatherhood...."
[34] This area of
responsibility covers both the intellectual and artistic training of the
children as well as their moral upbringing.
God hath prescribed unto every father to educate his children, both
boys and girls, in the sciences
and in morals, and in crafts and
professions....
[35]
Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his son and
daughter in the art of
reading and writing and in all that hath been laid down in the Holy
Tablet.
[36]
In light of the paradigm shift mentioned before, fathers are encouraged
and expected to develop and display characteristics such as love, tenderness and
compassion that traditionally are viewed as 'female'. In Jungian terms, the
Bahá´í Writings appeal to men to balance their personality by
building up their
anima. Following passage makes gender stereotypes look
old by employing a classic female metaphor, the hen nurturing her chicken, and
transfer it to describe a new role model for fathers.
If a wise father plays with his children, who has a right to say it is
not good for them? He calls
them to come to him as the hen calls her chicks; he knows that they are
little and must be coaxed
along - coaxed along because they are young and
tiny.
[37]
Concerning counselling and guidance,
Bahá´u´lláh takes the same approach as outlined above
with respect to his role as divine Educator and delegating this function to the
elected institutions. Alluding to one of the Messianic titles given by Isaiah,
Bahá´u´lláh calls himself the "true", "trustworthy",
"faithful", or "benevolent Counsellor"
[38] and
exhorts the people to give ear unto his call and not to be heedless. With the
ethical principles for and the method of consultation he provided an instrument
that would ensure that "the lamp of guidance" continues to be
lit.
[39] "No welfare and no well-being can be
attained except through consultation"
[40], he
says, a statement that consonates with and can be linked to the one about unity
being the prerequisite for well-being (quoted above). Consultation and
compassion, the frank and open exchange of thoughts in an appreciative and
encouraging environment, could then be regarded as a means for achieving unity
on any level of society.
The heaven of divine wisdom is illumined with the two luminaries of
consultation and compassion.
Take ye counsel together in all matters, inasmuch as consultation is
the lamp of guidance which
leadeth the way, and is the bestower of
understanding.
[41]
Consultation bestoweth greater awareness and transmuteth conjecture
into certitude. It is a shining
light which, in a dark world, leadeth the way and guideth. For
everything there is and will continue
to be a station of perfection and maturity. The maturity of the gift
of understanding is made manifest
through consultation.
[42]
The one-sided communication of the past, delivered by patriarchal
fathers, rulers, and priests, is being replaced by the egalitarian setting of
joint problem-solving and truth-finding. The quality of consultation, being the
result and expression of intellectual maturity, as the quote above suggests, can
be regarded as yardstick for the level of maturity a certain group or
institution has reached.
The Everlasting Father
The designation Father (in the context of "glory of the Father") as
messianic title is not confined to Christianity only. In a prominent passage of
his writings, the prophet Isaiah gives five names by which the future Davidic
Messiah would be known.
For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given: and the government
shall be upon his shoulder:
and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The mighty God, The
everlasting Father,
The Prince of Peace. Of the increase of his government and peace there
shall be no end, upon the
throne of David, and upon his kingdom, to order it, and to establish it
with judgment and with justice
from henceforth even for ever. (Isa. 9:5-6).
It is important to understand that these names are not proper names in
the modern sense but rather descriptive designations or titles. Even proper
names, in Biblical tradition, are often descriptive in nature or sometimes
replaced with new names, reflecting new spiritual
characteristics.
[43]
In a dream, Joseph was told to call Mary's son Jesus, "for he will save
his people from their sins" (Matt. 1:21). The proper name here has a descriptive
meaning referring to the redemptive character of Jesus' mission. Interestingly
enough, the gospel narrative goes on to say that this event constituted the
fulfillment of Isaiah's prophecy to King Ahas: "Behold, a
virgin
[44] shall conceive, and bear a son, and
shall call his name Immanuel" (Isa. 7:14). In the New Testament passage, the
clarification "Immanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us" (Matt.
1:22-23) is being added, obviously to point out that this prophecy was not
fulfilled literally but symbolically. People did not call Jesus by the name
Immanuel but according to his own testimony, his presence signified the
presence of God on earth.
[45]
With this understanding of the descriptive nature of names in mind, we
can further explore the name
Everlasting Father.
Bahá´u´lláh only once uses this designation (in the
Writings translated so far) when he addresses the representatives of
Christianity, challenging them with the claim of having fulfilled Isaiah's
prophecy.
O concourse of bishops! Trembling hath seized all the kindreds of the
earth, and He Who is the
Everlasting Father calleth aloud between earth and heaven. Blessed the
ear that hath heard, and
the eye that hath seen, and the heart that hath turned unto Him Who is
the Point of Adoration of
all who are in the heavens and all who are on
earth....
[46]
The allusion to Matt. 13:16 ("But blessed
are your eyes, for they see: and your ears, for they hear.") serves
as a warning not to expect a literal fulfillment of these prophecies. It is only
with spiritual senses, so to speak, that the advent of the Messiah would be
witnessed. Referring to himself as a universal "Point of Adoration",
Bahá´u´lláh reinforces the image of being the
Everlasting Father for the whole of humanity and, by implication, of fulfilling
the end-time prophecies of other (non-semitic) religions as
well.
[47] In a similar vein, the prophet Haggai
referred to the universality of the future Messiah when he called him "the
desire of all nations".
For thus saith the LORD of hosts; Yet once, it is a little while, and I
will shake the heavens,
and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land; And I will shake all
nations, and the desire of all
nations shall come: and I will fill this house with glory, saith the
LORD of hosts (Haggai 2:6-7).
On two occasions, Bahá´u´lláh takes up this
designation, further supporting his claim to be a universal Prophet expected and
desired by all peoples.
Glory be unto Thee, O Lord of the world and Desire of the nations, O
Thou Who hast become
manifest in the Greatest
Name...
[48]
This is the Day, O my Lord, whereon every atom of the earth hath been
made to vibrate and to
cry out: "O Thou Who art the Revealer of signs and the King of
creation! I, verily, perceive the
fragrance of Thy presence. Methinks Thou hast revealed Thyself, and
unlocked the door of
reunion with Thee before all who are in Thy heaven and all who are on
Thy earth. I am persuaded
through the fragrance of Thy robe, O my Lord, that the world hath been
honored through Thy
presence, and hath inhaled the sweet smell of Thy meeting. I know not,
however, O Thou the
Beloved of the world and the Desire of the nations, the place wherein
the throne of Thy majesty
hath been established, nor the seat which hath been made Thy footstool,
and been illumined with
the splendors of the light of Thy
face."
[49]
In this second quote, the universality of the response is expressed as
the desire of the whole creation, not only of its peoples but also of "every
atom". The connection to the Davidic messianic kingship is established by
reference to the "throne" and the
"footstool".
[50] In one sense, the whole earth
serves as the footstool of the heavenly
throne
[51], more specifically, the Holy
Land
[52], respectively, Mount
Carmel.
[53]
The Tablet of Carmel, revealed by Bahá´u´lláh
during his fourth visit to Haifa, one year before his passing, "contains
significant allusions to the establishment of the World Centre of the Faith and
is considered its charter."
[54] Seventy-two
years later, in 1963, the Universal House of Justice was elected for the first
time and has guided the Bahá´í world ever since.
One of their means of guidance is an annual message to the
Bahá´í world at Ridvan,
[55]
summarizing the previous year's achievements and highlighting the goals for the
year to come. Often these messages contain some kind of visionary outlook,
pointing towards the 'Golden Age' of universal peace and brotherhood. In the
1973 Message, the Biblical themes of the Everlasting Father, his Covenant, and
the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth are connected to the
present-day activities of the Bahá´í community.
The progress of the Cause of God gathers increasing momentum and we may
with confidence
look forward to the day when this Community ... shall have raised on
this tormented planet the
fair mansions of God's Own Kingdom ... All this shall be accomplished
within the Covenant of
the everlasting Father, the Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh."
[56]
Such references can be regarded as a continuation of
´Abdu´l-Bahá's approach to increase the awareness of the
historical religious connections and the fulfillment of prophecies in our
present day and age.
[57]
The Ancient of Days
Bearing the twin revelation of the Báb and
Bahá´u´lláh in mind, we can say that Daniel's vision
(and similarly Enoch's) could also refer to the advent of both these two holy
figures. Traditionally, the "one like the Son of man" (Dan. 7:13) is regarded as
the Messiah and the "Ancient of Days" (Enoch: "Chief of Days") as symbolizing
God. But when we interpret these visions as depicting the twin manifestations,
the "Son of man" figure would represent the Báb and the "Ancient of Days"
Bahá´u´lláh. The life and mission of the Báb
equals in many ways that of Christ, summarized by Shoghi Effendi in the
following passage:
The passion of Jesus Christ, and indeed His whole public ministry,
alone offer a parallel to the
Mission and death of the Bab, a parallel which no student of
comparative religion can fail to
perceive or ignore. In the youthfulness and meekness of the Inaugurator
of the Babi Dispensation;
in the extreme brevity and turbulence of His public ministry; in the
dramatic swiftness with which
that ministry moved towards its climax; in the apostolic order which He
instituted, and the primacy
which He conferred on one of its members; in the boldness of His
challenge to the time-honored
conventions, rites and laws which had been woven into the fabric of the
religion He Himself had
been born into; in the role which an officially recognized and firmly
entrenched religious hierarchy
played as chief instigator of the outrages which He was made to suffer;
in the indignities heaped
upon Him; in the suddenness of His arrest; in the interrogation to
which He was subjected; in the
derision poured, and the scourging inflicted, upon Him; in the public
affront He sustained; and,
finally, in His ignominious suspension before the gaze of a hostile
multitude - in all these we cannot
fail to discern a remarkable similarity to the distinguishing features
of the career of Jesus Christ.
[58]
It is therefore more than appropriate to see in the Báb the
perfect resemblance of the
Son of man imagery of Jesus. At least on one
occasion (in the excerpts translated so far) the Báb refers to himself as
the Son when he urges his mother, Fatimih-Bagum, to recognize the divine Sonship
in her son. The equation of the Son with the divine Word (
logos) echoes
the Johannine prologue and
provides a further link to
Christ.
[59]
O Thou Mother of the Remembrance! May the peace and salutation of God
rest upon thee.
Indeed thou hast endured patiently in Him Who is the sublime Self of
God. Recognize then
the station of thy Son Who is none other than the mighty Word of
God.
[60]
Bahá´u´lláh, on the other side, refers to
himself several times as the "Ancient of Days", respectively as representative
of the "Ancient of Days", using the imagery of pen, voice, tongue, fingers, and
countenance: "Wert thou to incline thine inner ear unto all created things, thou
wouldst hear:
´The Ancient of Days is come in His great
glory!'''
[61]
All glory be to this Day, the Day in which the fragrances of mercy have
been wafted over all
created things, a Day so blest that past ages and centuries can never
hope to rival it, a Day in
which the countenance of the Ancient of Days hath turned towards His
holy seat. Thereupon
the voices of all created things, and beyond them those of the
Concourse on high, were heard
calling aloud: "Haste thee, O Carmel, for lo, the light of the
countenance of God, the Ruler of
the Kingdom of Names and Fashioner of the heavens, hath been lifted
upon thee...
Rejoice, for God hath in this Day established upon thee His
throne..."
[62]
Both these passages allude to the apocalyptic vision of Daniel. In the
first, Bahá´u´lláh identifies himself directly with the
Ancient of Days, which supports the interpretation suggested above. In the
second, as in all the other representational
passages
[63],
Bahá´u´lláh represents the Godhead. He is the visible
expression and manifestation of God, the invisible Ancient of Days. "The Ancient
of Days [Bahá´u´lláh] is come in His great glory"
because "the door of the knowledge of the Ancient of Days [God]" is "closed in
the face of all beings", including the Prophets of
God.
[64] He is one of the "sanctified mirrors"
whose " beauty of their countenance is but a reflection of His [God's]
image."
[65]
The "snow-white Scroll" that the "Tongue of the Ancient of Days" writes
upon could be a further allusion to the biblical Ancient of Days "whose garment
was white as snow" (Dan 7:9).
Once again doth the Tongue of the Ancient of Days reveal, while in this
Most Great Prison,
these words which are recorded in this snow-white
Scroll...
[66]
The relationship between garment and scroll becomes more apparent when
it is being taken into consideration that the Ancient of Days is synonymous with
the Word of God. The garment beautifies the outer form (the body) of the
Prophet, just as the scroll beautifies the outer form (the letters) of the Word.
Furthermore, both objects are of the same colour and of a similar form (longish,
undulating). The colour symbolism refers in both cases to the essence. The
whiteness of the garment represents the purity of the Prophet's reality, the
whiteness of the scroll represents the purity of the message.
The second characteristic of the biblical Ancient of Days is his white
hair. White hair, in consistence with the image of a dignified old man,
signifies wisdom. Such a connotation is certainly appropriate for any of the
Prophets of God who Bahá´u´lláh calls "Gems of
knowledge" and "irreproachable and purest Symbols of
wisdom".
[67] But hair also turns white because
of suffering and sorrows. The "iniquities" of the Shi'ih clergy, heaped upon
Bahá´u´lláh in the form of imprisonment, torture and
banisment have, according to Shoghi Effendi, "bowed down Bahá'u'lláh,
and turned His hair white, and caused Him to groan aloud in
anguish.
[68] This description is obviously a
direct reference to Bahá´u´lláh's own
testimony.
The cruelties inflicted by My oppressors have bowed Me down, and turned
My hair white.
Shouldst thou present thyself before My throne, thou wouldst fail to
recognize the Ancient
Beauty, for the freshness of His countenance is altered, and its
brightness hath faded, by
reason of the oppression of the
infidels.
[69]
The self-portrayal of Bahá´u´lláh as Ancient
Beauty sitting on his throne evokes the apocalyptic scene of Daniel's Day of
Judgement and Isaiah's prophecies. He is the one who will sit "upon the throne
of David" (Isa. 9:7) and "will come with strong hand" (Isa. 40:10) and "shall
judge among the nations" (Isa. 2:4), "the Judge, the Lawgiver and Redeemer of
all mankind"
[70].
Bahá´u´lláh's lamentation provides a new emphasis
though. It calls up Isaiah's description of the Messiah as 'suffering servant'.
The impressive scene that Daniel foresaw, when "thousand thousands ministered
unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him: the judgment was
set, and the books were opened" (Dan. 7:10) is tempered with the image of a
suffering and grief-stricken king whose "countenance" has lost its "brightness".
This shift of emphasis prompts us to take up the symbolism of the "garment" once
more and explore another facet of a possibly intended meaning. Just as the white
hair symbolizes wisdom but also suffering, the white garment stands not only for
purity but for affliction as well. "We have made abasement the garment of glory,
and affliction the adornment of Thy temple, O Pride of the
worlds."
[71]
In another passage, the images of purity and pain are merged. This
makes it possible to visualize the messianic Judge in all his majesty and power
and yet, in all his weakness and frailty because of his exposure to the world of
humanity and the sufferings he had to endure. "I beseech Thee ... by Thy pure
and spotless Beauty ... and by Thy Name, cloaked with the garment of affliction
every morn and eve..."
[72]
The life and mission of Christ was characterized by a stark contrast
between material poverty, physical humiliation, and apparent defeat on one side
and surrender under God's will, spiritual nobility, royal authority and ultimate
victory on the other side. This paradoxical situation had challenged the
established traditions of the Jews regarding the appearance and role of their
Messiah. This contrast is also typical for the life and mission of
Bahá´u´lláh. The spiritual authority of the Prophet is
never endangered by any earthly conditions, dire as they may be. This is why
Jesus, at the moment of utter helplessness in the hands of the Jewish council,
could nevertheless boldly assert that he was indeed the Messiah, endowed with
divine power.
[73] Similarly, the spiritual
authority of Bahá´u´lláh was never impaired regardless
of his status as a prisoner, as "the Wronged
One".
[74]
May all existence be a sacrifice for Thy favour, and all that hath been
and will ever be, a ransom
for Thy Word, O Thou the Wronged One amongst the people of enmity, O
Thou in Whose grasp
are the reins of all who are in heaven and on
earth....
[75]
Briefly, this Wronged One hath, in the face of all that hath befallen
Him at their hands, and all that
hath been said of Him, endured patiently, and held His peace, inasmuch
as it is Our purpose, through
the loving providence of God - exalted be His glory - and His
surpassing mercy, to abolish, through
the force of Our utterance, all disputes, war, and bloodshed, from the
face of the earth.
[76]
The thought that Christ upon his return would have to suffer again may
well be a challenging one for many Christians, just as it was hard for the Jews
to come to terms with the notion of a suffering Messiah in the first place.
Taking the apocalyptic visions literally, expecting the descent of Christ in the
clouds of the sky establishing the promised Kingdom of God on earth, leaves no
place for his suffering, persecution, and rejection.
Bahá´u´lláh repeatedly warns the Christians not to
repeat the past mistakes of rejecting the Prophet of God because of the
non-fulfillment of prophecies in a literal sense. These literal expectations, he
says, constitute one of the intended meanings of the symbolism of the "clouds of
heaven". Besides "those things that are contrary to the ways and desires of
men", clouds also refer to "the appearance of that immortal Beauty in the image
of mortal man with such human limitations as ... glory and abasement" among
others.
[77] In this context, following passage
is illuminating, as it alludes to the suffering of
Bahá´u´lláh, drawing on the "cloud"
symbolism.
Open your eyes that ye may behold the Ancient Beauty from this shining
and luminous station...
The Promised One Himself hath come down from heaven, seated upon the
crimson cloud with
the hosts of revelation on His right, and the angels of inspiration on
His left...
[78]
According to Note 127 in the
Kitab-i Aqdas, "the word "crimson"
[in the Bahá´í Writings] is used in several allegorical and
symbolic senses". One of the primary meanings is certainly the connotation with
blood, in the context of suffering and martyrdom, as the following passages
show.
O SON OF MAN! Write all that We have revealed unto thee with the ink of
light upon the tablet
of thy spirit. Should this not be in thy power, then make thine ink of
the essence of thy heart. If
this thou canst not do, then write with that crimson ink that hath been
shed in My path. Sweeter
indeed is this to Me than all else, that its light may endure for ever.
[79]
O God, my God! Thou seest this wronged servant of Thine, held fast in
the talons of ferocious
lions, of ravening wolves, of bloodthirsty beasts. Graciously assist
me, through my love for Thee,
that I may drink deep of the chalice that brimmeth over with
faithfulness to Thee and is filled with
Thy bountiful Grace; so that, fallen upon the dust, I may sink
prostrate and senseless whilst my
vesture is dyed crimson with my
blood.
[80]
Allusions to Akka as "Crimson Spot", to his cause and its followers as
"Companions of the Crimson Arc", or to his
Kitab-i Ahd (Book of Covenant)
as "Crimson Book" are certainly more complex metaphors whose wide spectrum of
meanings cannot be explored here.
[81]
Nevertheless, the intended meaning of 'suffering' can easily be deduced with
reference to Akka as "Crimson Spot". Bahá´u´lláh
repeatedly mentions the sufferings and trials that he had to endure in that
penal colony, designated by him as the 'Most Great
Prison'.
[82] However, as the following passages
suggest, Bahá´u´lláh sufferered not only or even
primarily due to the machinations of his enemies but rather because of
the lack of response towards his divine call.
The eye of My loving-kindness weepeth sore over you, inasmuch as ye
have failed to recognize
the One upon Whom ye have been calling in the daytime and in the night
season, at even and at
morn. Advance, O people, with snow-white faces and radiant hearts,
unto the blest and crimson
Spot, wherein the Sadratu'l-Muntaha is calling: "Verily, there is none
other God beside Me, the
Omnipotent Protector, the
Self-Subsisting!"
[83]
My imprisonment doeth Me no harm, neither the tribulations I suffer,
nor the things that have
befallen Me at the hands of My oppressors. That which harmeth Me is the
conduct of those who,
though they bear My name, yet commit that which maketh My heart and My
pen to lament.
[84]
It is obvious that the colour symbolism of 'crimson' is not limited to
the level of physical suffering, to the shedding of physical blood. In a broader
sense, it can refer to emotional and spiritual suffering as well. The 'bleeding
heart' may well cause more pain than any other wound. "From Our eyes there
rained tears of anguish, and in Our bleeding heart there surged an ocean of
agonizing pain", is Bahá´u´lláh's testimony in another
context.
[85]
Despite the trials and tribulations during his time of imprisonment in
Akka, Bahá´u´lláh
"established His seat" in this "most desolate" of
towns.
[86] This filthy place then, from a
spiritual
perspective, became an "exalted habitation", with strong allusions to
the Biblical imagery of the seat of David's throne.
Rejoice with exceeding joy inasmuch as thou hast been remembered in the
Most Great Prison and
the Countenance of the Ancient of Days hath turned towards thee from
this exalted habitation.
[87]
The prison of Akka and its Prisoner are portrayed in the contrasting
colours of (physical) abasement and (spiritual) glory. The 'crimson cloud' and
the 'Crimson Spot' symbolize simultaneously the sufferings of
Bahá´u´lláh and the people's inability to perceive his
hidden messianic reality.
The Ancient Beauty
A frequent designation of Bahá´u´lláh is
Ancient Beauty. This title can be regarded as synonymous with
Ancient
of Days: "The Most Great Law is come, and the Ancient Beauty ruleth upon the
throne of David.Thus hath My Pen spoken that which the histories of bygone ages
have related.
[88]
Furthermore, this designation could be regarded as a combination of two
Biblical messianic terms, the
Ancient of Days (Dan. 7:9) and
Wonderful (Isa. 9:5).
Wonderful is one of the five names for the
Messiah mentioned above. Bahá´u´lláh seemed not to have
used this name specifically, although references to his "wonderful" personality
can be found in the Bahá´í
Writings.
[89] Instead,
Bahá´u´lláh coined a new designation, which merges the
images of beauty with a range of images related to "ancient", such as age,
continuity and wisdom. Similarly, the designation
Everlasting Beauty
combines these attributes, alluding to the terms
Everlasting Father and
Wonderful.
[90]
The phenomenon of deification
Several times in the Bahá´í Writings reference to
God is made by the term 'Father', respectively, 'Heavenly Father', following the
usage in the New Testament.
[91] It is important
not to confuse the divine and the prophetic level, so that references to God as
Father in the Bible are not wrongly
attributed to Bahá´u´lláh and also to remain
alert against the danger of unduly deifying the Prophet-
founder of the Bahá´í Faith.
Bahá´u´lláh clarifies, for instance, that the reference
to the Father in Matt. 24:36 ("But of that Day and Hour knoweth no man, no, not
the angels of heaven, nor the Son, but the Father.") refers to God and not to
himself: "By Father in this connection is meant God - exalted be His
glory."
[92] This explanation implies that in
other cases Father refers to
Bahá´u´lláh
[93] but its
main didactic function seems to be the caveat not to confuse the level of God as
Heavenly Father with that of Bahá´u´lláh as being
the
Everlasting Father. Such caveats have obviously been necessary from
Bahá´u´lláh's own lifetime up until today, judging from
a variety of statements in response to individual inquiries, clarifying
ambiguous and abstruse passages of the Bahá´í Writings.
On one such occasion, Shoghi Effendi clarifies that
Bahá´u´lláh cannot be regarded as an "intermediary"
between other Prophets and God. Such a view was probably based on
Bahá´u´lláh's claim to having fulfilled a prophecy of
the Imam Ali: "Anticipate ye the Revelation of Him Who conversed with Moses from
the Burning Bush on Sinai."
[94] Shoghi
Effendi's interpretation rejects a literal reading of this prophecy and provides
a key to an appropriate understanding of similar statements of
doxology.
[95]
Bahá'u'lláh is not the intermediary between other Manifestations and
God. Each has His own
relation to the Primal Source. But in the sense that Bahá'u'lláh is the
greatest Manifestation to
yet appear, the One who consummates the Revelation of Moses, He was the
One Moses
conversed with in the Burning Bush. In other words, Bahá'u'lláh
identifies the glory of the
God-Head on that occasion with Himself. No distinction can be made
amongst the Prophets
in the sense that They all proceed from one Source, and are of one
essence. But Their stations
and functions in this world are
different.
[96]
Another statement seems also to suggest that
Bahá´u´lláh is superior to other Manifestations of God:
"The Holy Spirit Itself hath been generated through the agency of a single
letter revealed by this Most Great Spirit, if ye be of them that
comprehend."
[97]
Bahá´u´lláh's caveat to "comprehend" this statement well
seems to hint at a meaning beyond its literal sense. Superficially, one could
assume that Bahá´u´lláh's source of inspiration, the
"Most Great Spirit", is substantially different from the "Holy Spirit", the
perennial source of guidance for God's Prophets. Following passage, although not
directly addressing this mystical utterance, makes clear that the "Most Great
Spirit" is identical with the "Holy Spirit". The statement above, therefore,
seems to be doxological again, expressing the special station of
Bahá´u´lláh, as opposed to any inferred essential
distinction.
[T]he "Most Great Spirit," as designated by Himself, and symbolized in
the Zoroastrian,
the Mosaic, the Christian, and Muhammadan Dispensations by the Sacred
Fire, the Burning
Bush, the Dove and the Angel Gabriel respectively, descended upon, and
revealed itself,
personated by a "Maiden," to the agonized soul of
Bahá'u'lláh.
[98]
Despite such clarifications, thre have always been attempts to deify
Bahá´u´lláh, to see in him a fuller and higher
expression of the Divine. Unlike in the past, where such notions have led to
various religious conflicts and schisms, such thoughts find an outlet in the
Bahá´í community and can be expressed freely. Such individual
interpretations are appreciated because they "constitute the fruit of man's
rational power and may well contribute to a greater comprehension of the
Faith."
The only limitations are that personal points of view should be offered
in a spirit of humility "as a contribution to knowledge", must not lead to
strive and contention, and must not "deny or contend with the authoritative
interpretation."
[99]
Following excerpt from a tablet of
Bahá´u´lláh
[100]
sheds further light on this issue. It gives room for different views, provided
no "contention and disputation" arises.
[O]ne person envisages the Unseen the Transcendent, the Inaccessible
One in the Person of the
Manifestation without making any distinction or connection. Others
there are who recognise
the Person of the Manifestation as the Appearance of God and consider
the commands and
prohibitions of the Manifestation to be identical with such as
originate with the one True God.
These two positions are both acceptable before the throne of God. If
however, the supporters
of these two positions should contend and quarrel with one another in
their exposition of the
two perspectives, both groups are, and hath ever been, rejected. This
inasmuch as the purpose
of the spiritual understanding and the exposition of the highest levels
of the elucidation of the
teachings is to attract the hearts, cause fellowship between souls, and
further the propagation of
the Cause of God. As a result of contention and disputation amongst
those who hold to these
two positions, there hath been and will ever result the dissipation of
the Cause of God and
both groups shall return to the hellfire despite the fact that they, in
their own estimation, soar
in the highest horizon of spiritual understanding.
This is a sobering warning that bars the way to any legitimization of
religious disputes. The criteria of establishing "right and wrong" are not to be
found in the domain of intellectual arguments and theological propositions but
in the process of community building, in overcoming estrangement and fostering
love and fellowship. This has always been the case in the eyes of God,
Bahá´u´lláh argues, although it may not have been
formulated explicitly in previous sacred
literature.
[101] But since the mission of the
"Father", the hallmark of his teachings, is to establish world unity, it is not
surprising that this issue is taken up many times in the
Bahá´í Writings and explored and dealt with from different
angles.
The Relativity of Divine Truth
The relationship symbolized by the Son and the Father can also be
described as one of promise and fulfillment. Christ has promised that, upon his
return, the Kingdom of God will be established on earth and that humanity will
be led "into all truth" (John 16:13).
Bahá´u´lláh's revelation does of course lead
into "all truth", as foretold in the Bible. His hundred volumes of Sacred
Writings far exceed the sayings and parables of Christ, but all of this
nevertheless consists of the "many things" that Christ could have taught if the
receptivity and maturity of the people had allowed it.
"All truth", however, is still relative. Humanity, at the threshold of
collective maturity, has received abundant guidance for the next millenium,
which could be regarded as 'completion' of the message of Christ. But the
process of spiritual evolution is never-ending. So it is not surprising that
Bahá´u´lláh on the one hand confirms the completion of
his revelation
[102] but relativizes this
statement by referring to the limitations of the human mind in general,
respectively to the present stage of intellectual and spiritual development in
particular.
All that I have revealed unto thee with the tongue of power, and have
written for thee with the pen
of might, hath been in accordance with thy capacity and understanding,
not with My state and the
melody of My
voice.
[103]
The theme of limited human understanding and divine knowledge is
addressed in the following two quotes as well. The first focusses on the
infinity of divine knowledge, indicating that the process of divine Revelation
can never come to an end. The second quote seems to imply that humanity at large
could have 'matured' faster and would then have received an even greater amount
of divine guidance. In other words, this passage deals with the ancient biblical
theme of the reciprocal Covenant between God and humanity.
Behold, how many are the mysteries that lie as yet unravelled within
the tabernacle of the
knowledge of God, and how numerous the gems of His wisdom that are
still concealed in His
inviolable treasuries! Shouldest thou ponder this in thine heart, thou
wouldst realize that His
handiwork knoweth neither beginning nor
end.
[104]
The generality of mankind is still immature. Had it acquired sufficient
capacity We would
have bestowed upon it so great a measure of Our knowledge that all who
dwell on earth and
in heaven would have found themselves, by virtue of the grace streaming
from Our pen,
completely independent of all knowledge save the knowledge of God, and
would have been
securely established upon the throne of abiding
tranquillity.
[105]
These passages balance the notion of fulfillment with yet another
promise, albeit implicit and indirect. Bahá´u´lláh's
Revelation constitutes, in the words of Shoghi Effendi, "the promise and
crowning glory of past ages and centuries" and "the consummation of all the
Dispensations within the Adamic Cycle". It is therefore both a climax and a
turningpoint in religious history as it marks "the end of the Prophetic Era and
the beginning of the Era of
Fulfillment."
[106]
From a different point of view, each religion within the Prophetic Era,
in its relation to the previous one, was also one of
fulfillment.
[107] But all of them can rightly
be regarded as prophetic, inasmuch as they all promised and focussed on a
messianic era of global peace. Similarly it can be said that the
Bahá´í Faith, in its relation to the religion to come,
contains prophetic elements as well and the same can be expected from the
subsequent religions within the "Era of
Fulfillment".
[108]
Contemplating on Bahá´u´lláh's role as
inaugurator of a new cycle, the symbolism of his station as
Father gets
even a wider range of meaning. Beyond the fulfillment of messianic promises, and
the notion of completion and fulfillment,
Fatherhood marks the beginning
of a new 'family' of divine Messengers to come within the
Bahá´í cycle.
Concerning the Manifestations that will come down in the future 'in the
shadows of the clouds',
know, verily, that in so far as their relation to the Source of their
inspiration is concerned, they
are under the shadow of the Ancient Beauty. In their relation,
however, to the age in which they
appear, each and every one of them 'doeth whatsoever He
willeth.'
[109]
Based on ´Abdu´l-Bahá's prediction that this new cycle
"must extend over a period of at least five hundred thousand
years"
[110], and
Bahá´u´lláh's explanation that divine Prophets appear
roughly every thousand years
[111], we can
count with possibly five hundred Manifestations of God within the
Bahá´í Era. Each one of them will carry on the torch of
divine guidance and refine the human character. At the same time they will
undoubtedly refer and pay tribute to the originator of this cycle, to the
Everlasting Father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Adresses Given by
´Abdu´l-Bahá in 1911. London: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1995 [1912].
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The Promulgation of Universal Peace. Talks Delivered by
´Abdu´l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and
Canada in 1912. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1982 [1922-25].
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Selections from the Writings of
´Abdu´l-Bahá. Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre
1978.
---.
Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1981.
---.
Tablets of the Divine Plan. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1977.
---.
Will and Testament. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer
System), Version 2.0. Crimson Publications 1997.
Arts. A compilation of extracts from the Bahá´í
Writings. MARS (The Multiple Author Refer System), Version 2.0.
Crimson Publ. 1997.
Báb.
Selections from the Writings of the Báb.
Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre 1978.
Bahá´í Prayers.
A Selection of Prayers
revealed by Bahá´u´lláh, the Báb, and
´Abdu´l-Bahá. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1985 [1954].
Bahá´u´lláh.
Epistle to the Son of the
Wolf. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust
1988.
---.
Gleanings from the Writings of
Bahá´u´lláh. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1983.
---.
The Hidden Words. Oxford: Oneworld 1992.
---.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas. The Most Holy Book. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1993.
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The Kitab-i-Iqan. The Book of Certitude. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1974.
---.
Prayers and Meditations. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1987 [1938].
---.
Tablets of Bahá´u´lláh: Revealed after
the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahá´í World Centre
1978.
---. "Tablet to Jamal-i Burundi". Provisional translation by K.
Fananapazir, available on the Internet at
http://www.bahailibrary.com.
Cole, Juan. "Behold the Man: Bahá´u´lláh on the
life of Jesus". Published on the Internet at
http:\\www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/bahai
Consultation. A compilation of extracts from the
Bahá´í Writings. London: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1990.
Esslemont, J.E.
Bahá´u´lláh and the New
Era. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust, 1980
[1950].
The Holy Bible. Authorized King James Version. London: Diamond
Books 1994.
Lights of Guidance. Compiled by Helen Bassett Hornby. New Delhi:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1996 [1983].
Sears, William.
The Wine of Astonishment. Oxford: George Ronald
1985 [1963].
Shoghi Effendi.
The Advent of Divine Justice. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1990.
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Bahá´í Administration. Selected Messages
1922-1932. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1974.
---.
God Passes By. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í
Publishing Trust 1974.
---.
The Light of Divine Guidance. The Messages from the Guardian of
the Bahá´í Faith to the Bahá´ís of Germany
and Austria. Vol. I. Hofheim-Langenhain:
Bahá´í Verlag 1982.
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Messages to the Antipodes.
Communications from Shoghi
Effendi to the Bahá´í Communities of Australasia.
Mona Vale NSW: Bahá´í Publications Australia
1997.
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The Promised Day Is Come. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1996 [1941].
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Unfolding Destiny.
The Messages from the Guardian of the
Bahá´í Faith to the Bahá´í Community of
the British
Isles. London: Bahá´í Publishing Trust
1981.
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World Order of Bahá´u´lláh.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1991.
Sours, Michael.
A Study of Bahá´u´lláh's
Tablet to the Christians. Oxford: Oneworld 1990.
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Understanding Biblical Prophecy. Oxford: Oneworld
1997.
Stockman, Robert. "Jesus Christ in the Bahá´í
Writings". The Bahá´í Studies Review 2:1 (1992):
33-41.
Taherzadeh, Adib.
The Revelation of
Bahá´u´lláh. Vol. 4. Oxford: George Ronald
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Women. Bahá´í Writings on the Equality of Men and
Women. London: Bahá´í Publishing Trust 1990.
Notes
[1] The spiritual meaning of healing
blindness and "hardened hearts" can be deduced from Isaiah 6:9-10, quoted and
referred to in John 12:40 resp. John 9:39, whereas the elucidation of leprosy in
spiritual terms is novel.
[2] Cf.
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 76.
[3] Juan Cole, "Behold the Man:
Bahá´u´lláh on the life of Jesus" 8.
[4] Bahá´u´lláh,
Gleanings 85-6.
[5] The "sign of the Son of man in
heaven", for instance, refers both to the appearance of a "star" in the sky and
to the coming of a herald, a fore-runner, who announces to and prepares the
people for the coming of a new Manifestation of God (see
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 62). For the whole
excursus on the three verses of the minor apocalypse (Matt. chapters 24 and 25),
which comprises almost a third of the Kitab-i Iqan, see pp. 20-93.
[6] Bahá´u´lláh,
Kitab-i Iqan 30-1.
[7] Ibid., 31. This statement alludes to
and sheds light on a similar saying in the minor apocalypse: "For wheresoever
the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together" (Matt. 24:28). The
New Jerusalem Bible Commentary assumes this to be an inserted proverb, conveying
the same idea as the preceding verse (where the coming of the Son of man is
compared to a "lightning"), namely being a reference to the "immediate
visibility" of the coming of the Messiah. Bahá´u´lláh,
on the other hand, links this verse with the succeeding one, reading it as a
description of the "oppression" mentioned there.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Bahá´u´lláh,
Kitab-i Iqan 152.
[10] Ibid., 176.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Stockman, "Jesus Christ in the
Bahá´í Writings". The Bahá´í Studies
Review 2:1 (1992): 37-8. Stockman lists the "deeper, more personal, more loving
relationship" between God and humanity that Christ exemplified, than the
historical fact that this title has been only applied to Jesus, third the
"important and fitting counterpoint to the title 'Son of Man'", and fourth that
it alludes to the virgin birth.
[13] This point will be discussed
further below.
[14] The arabic title
Bahá´u´lláh means Glory of God. Equating the term Father
with God, it could also be rendered as Glory of the Father.
[15] This tablet is commonly known and
referred to as 'Tablet to the Christians'. It adresses both the Christian clergy
and Christian believers in general, presenting them with the claim of
Bahá´u´lláh being the Messiah, the return of Christ. Why
Bahá´u´lláh has called it 'most holy' is not entirely
clear but Shoghi Effendi lists it among the tablets that are "most noteworthy",
belonging to the "choicest fruits" of Bahá´u´lláh's
Revelation (God Passes By 216). For a detailed study of this tablet, see
Sours, A Study of Bahá´u´lláh's Tablet to the
Christians.
[16]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 11.
[17]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised
Day Is Come 32.
[18] These functions are not to be
taken exclusively of course as mothers share the same responsibilities.
Undoubtedly the parental roles and functions will be more dynamic in their
complementarity as in the past, due to the paradigm shift towards a new age "in
which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly
balanced" (´Abdu´l-Bahá, quoted in Esslemont,
Bahá´u´lláh and the New Era 148).
[19]
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 286.
[20]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 36.
[21]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 31.
[22] It is important in this context
to remember that the 'parental' authority lies with the Institution and not with
its individual members who cannot regard themselves in any way superior to the
community.
[23] Shoghi Effendi, Light of
Divine Guidance Vol. I 168. Similarly, in a letter from the Universal House
of Justice: "In caring for its community, a Spiritual Assembly should act as a
loving father rather than as a stern judge..." Quoted in Lights of
Guidance 363.
[24] The image of the "shepherd" is
used for God (see, for instance, Psalm 23), and for priests and kings as his
representatives on earth (see, for instance, Jer. 50:6). It also refers to the
Messiah (see, for instance, Ez. 34:23) who will gather the "lost sheep" because
"their shepherds have caused them to go astray" (Jer. 50:6). Christ takes up
this theme with his parable of the lost sheep (Matt. 18:12-14) and his sermon
about the "good shepherd" (John 10:11-18), alluding to his messianic role.
Similarly, Bahá´u´lláh likens his role as Lawgiver to
that of a shepherd (see Kitab-i Aqdas 63) and critizises the corrupt
clergy as wearing "the guise of a shepherd" (Epistle to the Son of the Wolf
16). References to the members of Bahá´í institutions as
"shepherds" allude to messianic promises such as: "And I will give you pastors
according to mine heart, which shall feed you with knowledge and understanding"
(Jer. 3:13; see also 23:4).
[25]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 38.
[26] Universal House of Justice,
quoted in Lights of Guidance 3.
[27] Sears, The Wine of
Astonishment 88.
[28] Sours, A Study of
Bahá´u´lláh's Tablet to the Christians
76.
[29] Sours, Understanding Biblical
Prophecy 65. See also ´Abdu´l-Bahá's interpretation of a
related prophecy (Isa. 11:6-8) in Some Answered Questions 63.
[30] Sours, Understanding Biblical
Prophecy 64.
[31]
Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers
(US) 105.
[32] Concerning the priority of moral
education, see, for instance, ´Abdu´l-Bahá, Selections
135. About the importance of spiritual education, see, for instance, Shoghi
Effendi, quoted in Lights of Guidance 211.
[33] "As the child grows older and
more independent, the relative nature of its relationship with its mother and
father modifies and the father can play a greater role." Universal House of
Justice, quoted in Lights of Guidance 627.
[34] Universal House of Justice,
quoted in Lights of Guidance 232.
[35]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Arts
1-2.
[36]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 128. Again, these are not
exclusive statements, as others address both parents. See, for instance,
´Abdu´l-Bahá Selections 127: "... it is enjoined upon
the father and mother, as a duty, to strive with all effort to train the
daughter and the son, to nurse them from the breast of knowledge and to rear
them in the bosom of sciences and arts." Such statements seem to stress the
importance of the participation of fathers in the educational process as opposed
to an imbalanced focus on the bread-winning aspect.
[37] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
quoted in Lights of Guidance 147.
[38] Cf.
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 218; Tablets 42,
44, 71 a.o. The prophecy of Isaiah will be discussed below.
[39] Ethical aspects include freedom
from estrangement, devotion, courtesy, dignity, moderation of speech,
detachment, frankness, honesty a.o. Concerning the method of consultation
outlined by Bahá´u´lláh, see Kitab-i Aqdas 134.
[40]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Consultation
1.
[41]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 168.
[42]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in the Compilation on Consultation
1.
[43] Examples for descriptive names
are Samuel ('Heard by God'), Daniel ('God is my judge') and also Jesus (Hebr.
Joshua, 'God is salvation'). Altered or new names include Abraham ('Father of
many nations') for Abram, and Peter (Hebr. Kephas, 'Rock') for Simon. For more
details concerning the Biblical use and meaning of names, see Sours,
Understanding Biblical Prophecy chapter 17.
[44] The hebrew term alma is
generally used for a young (unmarried, i.e. virgin) girl but can also refer to a
young married woman. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (Septuaginta),
rendering this word as 'virgin', gives an early record of Jewish exegesis which
supports the Christian claim of the virgin birth of Jesus.
[45] See, for instance, John 8:29:
"And he that sent me is with me: the Father hath not left me alone; for I do
always those things that please him." See also John 1:14; 10:30, 38; 14:9-10;
17:21 a.o.
[46]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised
Day Is Come 101.
[47] Cf. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 94-5.
[48]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 33.
[49]
Bahá´u´lláh, Prayers and Meditations
279-80.
[50] See Chron. I 28:2.
[51] See Isa. 66:1; Matt. 5:35; and
also Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The
Advent of Divine Justice 78; The Promised Day Is Come
124.
[52] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
Selections 235. See also Lam. 2:1.
[53] Cf.
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 3-5. This tablet, called
Lawh-i Karmil (Tablet of Carmel), could be regarded as a divine, mystic
response to the earth's desire to be informed about the location of the heavenly
Throne. During the lifetime of Bahá´u´lláh, the
"Throne", symbolizing his spiritual authority, had been first 'erected' in
Bagdad (Gleanings 112; God Passes By 110) and then in Akka
(Prayers and Meditations 200). See also a related statement by the
Báb, quoted by Bahá´u´lláh in the Kitab-i
Aqdas 68: "The Qiblih is indeed He Whom God will make manifest; whenever He
moveth, it moveth, until He shall come to rest."
[54] Taherzadeh, The Revelation of
Bahá´u´lláh 351-2.
[55] lit. Paradise. Marks both the
place (a garden outside of Baghdad) and time (April 21 May 2) of
Bahá´u´lláh's public declaration as Manifestation of God
for our day and age.
[56] The Universal House of Justice,
quoted in Lights of Guidance 190.
[57] See, for instance, Tablets of
the Divine Plan 49 (referring to Bahá´ís as "angels" and
"apostles").
[58] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 56-7.
[59] A parallel to Jesus and his
mother can be drawn here as well. Some passages in the Bible suggest that Mary
did not immediately recognize the station of her son (cf. Matt. 12:46-50; Luke
2:43-51).
[60] Báb, Selections
52.
[61]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf
47.
[62]
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 14-15. The establisment of
the throne, which, as seen by Daniel, "was like the fiery flame, and his wheels
as burning fire" (Dan 7:9) on Mount Carmel could refer to the rulership and
guidance of the Universal House of Justice.
[63] This term refers to designations
such as "Pen of the Most High", "Tongue of Grandeur", "Hand of God" etc., which
describe or rather only hint at the relationship between the Manifestation of
God (Bahá´u´lláh) and God. Such passages are often
ambiguous because the stress could be placed on either the representative
(Bahá´u´lláh) or the Represented One (God), especially
in cases where the designation (such as "Ancient of Days") can refer to
both.
[64]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 99.
[65] Ibid., 100.
[66]
Bahá´u´lláh, Gleanings 241.
[67]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 44.
[68] Shoghi Effendi, The Promised
Day is come 90.
[69]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 169.
[70] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 93.
[71]
Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers (US) 220
("Fire Tablet").
[72]
Bahá´u´lláh, Bahá´í Prayers (US) 98
("Long Healing Prayer").
[73] Cf. Matt. 26:64.
[74] This designation has been used by
Bahá´u´lláh more than 200 times, which indicates the
predominant state of his sufferings. On one occasion, Shoghi Effendi even
referred to him as "Great Sufferer" (Bahá´í Administration
190).
[75]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Women 1-2.
[76]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf
34.
[77] Cf.
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 71-2.
[78]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 182.
[79]
Bahá´u´lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic #
71.
[80] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
Will and Testament 9.
[81] See Kitab-i Aqdas, Note
127 (Crimson Spot), Note 115 (Crimson Arc and Companions), God Passes By
238 (Crimson Book).
[82] See, for instance, Epistle to
the Son of the Wolf 108; Prayers and Meditations 200
a.o.
[83]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Aqdas 56.
[84]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf 23.
Similarly, Gleanings 100: "I sorrow not for the burden of My imprisonment
... My sorrows are for those who have involved themselves in their corrupt
passions, and claim to be associated with the Faith of God..."
[85]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 250, referring to his
two years of seclusion in the mountains of Kurdistan.
[86] Cf. Prayers and
Meditations 200.
[87]
Bahá´u´lláh, Tablets 253-4.
[88]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The Promised
Day is come 76.
[89] See, for instance
´Abdu´l-Bahá, Promulgation of Universal Peace 431: "Yet
these great numbers, instead of being able to dominate Him, could not withstand
His wonderful personality and the power and influence of His heavenly
Cause."
[90] This name occurs only four times
in Bahá´u´lláh's Writings (translated so far, see
Gleanings 72; Kitab-i Iqan 22; Hidden Words Persian # 10,
14), as opposed to the designaton Ancient Beauty, which is used around
fifteen times by Bahá´u´lláh. Other variants of
Beauty include Blessed Beauty (used primarily by
´Abdu´l-Bahá), Most Great Beauty, Abha Beauty
(used mainly by Shoghi Effendi), and other descriptive, though not titular,
adjectives, such as promised, most effulgent, pure and spotless,
resplendent, a.o.
[91] See, for instance,
´Abdu´l-Bahá, Paris Talks 120: "God has created us, one
and all - why do we act in opposition to His wishes, when we are all His
children, and love the same Father?" Or idem, Promulgation of Universal
Peace 266: "God is the Father of all." ´Abdu´l-Bahá often
uses the Biblical term Heavenly Father with reference to God (see, for
instance, Paris Talks 101, 113, 148; Promulgation of Universal
Peace 48, 216, 373, 468 a.o.). For the use of this term in the New
Testament, see Matt. 6:14, 26, 32; 15:13; 18:35; Luke 11:13).
[92]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the
Wolf 143.
[93] This seems to be mostly true for
the predictions of Christ's return ("in the glory of the Father").
[94]
Bahá´u´lláh, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf
42.
[95] Another example would be
Bahá´u´lláh's statement that God "out of utter
nothingness, hath created the reality of all things, Who, from naught, hath
brought into being the most refined and subtle elements of His creation"
(Gleanings 64). What could easily be regarded as a reference to and
confirmation of a theory of evolution ex nihilo, "should be taken in a
symbolic and not literal sense. It is only to demonstrate the power and
greatness of God" (Shoghi Effendi, Messages to the Antipodes
179).
[96] Shoghi Effendi, Unfolding
Destiny 448.
[97]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of
Bahá´u´lláh 109.
[98] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 101.
[99] See Notes in Kitab-i Aqdas
221-2.
[100]
Bahá´u´lláh, "Tablet to Jamal-i Burundi" (provisional
translation by K. Fananapazir, available on the Internet at
http://www.bahailibrary.com).
[101] Christ's promise "For where
two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them"
(Matt. 18:20) can be related to this exposition.
[102] Cf. Hidden Words,
Arabic No. 70: " Know thou, that I have wafted unto thee all the fragrances of
holiness, have fully revealed to thee My word..."
[103]
Bahá´u´lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic No. 67.
[104]
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 167.
[105]
Bahá´u´lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, The World
Order of Bahá´u´lláh 104.
[106] Shoghi Effendi, God Passes
By 100.
[107] Concerning Christianity being
the fulfillment of the Judaic Faith, see Luke 24:44, Matt. 5:17, Acts
3:18.
[108] Prophetic in nature, for
instance, is Bahá´u´lláh's statement that the next
Revelation of God cannot be expected "ere the expiration of a full thousand
years" (Kitab-i Aqdas 32), or his prediction that the next Manifestation
of God will have to suffer as well (see God Passes By 250).
[109] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of
Bahá´u´lláh 167.
[110] ´Abdu´l-Bahá,
quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order of
Bahá´u´lláh 102.
[111] Cf.
Bahá´u´lláh, Kitab-i Iqan 199: "Once in about a
thousand years shall this City be renewed and re-adorned."